CIHM 
Microfiche 


(Monographs) 


ICMH 

Collection  de 
microfiches 
(monographles) 


Canadian  Institute  for  Historical  Microreproductions  /  Instltut  Canadian  de  microreproductions  historiques 


TachniMi  and  Bibliographic  Notts  /  Notat  tachniquas  at  bibiiographiquat 


The  Institute  has  attampted  to  obtain  tha  bast  original 
copy  availabia  for  filming.  Faaturas  of  this  copy  which 
may  ba  bibliographically  uniqua,  which  may  altar  any 
of  tha  imagas  in  ttM  raproduction,  or  which  may 
significantly  changa  tha  usual  mathod  of  filming,  ara 
chacked  balow. 


L'Institut  a  microfilm*  la  mai!laur  axamplaira  qu'il 
lui  a  ati  pouibia  da  sa  procurer.  Las  details  da  cat 
axamplaira  qui  sont  paut-4tra  uniquas  du  point  da  «ua 
bibliographiqua.  qui  pauvant  modifier  una  imaga 
raproduita,  ou  qui  pauvant  axigar  una  modification 
dam  la  mithoda  normala  da  f  ilmaga  sont  indiqu^ 
ci-dassous. 


0  Coloured  covers/ 
Couverture  de  couleur 

0  Covers  damaged/ 
Couverture  endommagie 


n 


n 


Covers  restored  and/or  laminated/ 
Couverture  r.  staurie  et/ou  pclliculie 

Cover  title  missing/ 

Le  titre  de  couverture  manque 

Coloured  maps/ 

Cartas  gtegraphiquas  en  couleur 

Coloured  ink  (i.e.  other  than  blue  or  black)/ 
Encre  de  couleur  (i.e.  autre  que  bleue  ou  noire) 

Coloured  plates  and/or  illustrations/ 
Planches  et/ou  illustrations  en  couleur 

Bound  with  other  material/ 
ftelia  avec  d'autres  documents 

Tight  binding  may  cause  shadows  or  distortion 
along  interior  margin/ 

La  reliure  serree  peut  causer  de  I'ombre  ou  de  la 
distorsion  le  long  de  la  marge  interieure 

Blank  leaves  added  during  restoration  may  appear 
within  the  text.  Whenever  possible,  these  have 
been  omitted  from  filming/ 
II  se  peut  que  ceruines  pages  blanches  ajout^ 
tors  d'une  restauration  apparaissent  dans  le  texte, 
mais,  lorsque  cela  etait  possible,  ces  pages  n'ont 
pas  ate  filmtes. 


□  Coloured  pages/ 
Pages  de  couleur 


IZl 


Pages  damaged/ 
Pages  andommagtas 


□  Pages  restored  and/or  laminated/ 
Pages  restauries  et/ou  pellicultes 


0 


Pages  discoloured,  sttined  or  foxed/ 
Pages  dicolories,  tactMttes  ou  piquees 


□  Pages  detached/ 
Pages  ditachies 

□  Showthrough/ 
Transparence 


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0 


Quality  of  print  varies/ 
Qualite  inigale  de  I'impression 

Continuous  pagination/ 
Pagination  continue 


Includes  index(es)/ 
Comprend  un  (des)  index 

Title  on  header  taken  from:  / 
Le  titre  de  I'en-tCte  provient: 


n;: 


n 


tie  page  of  issue/ 
Page  de  titre  de  la  livraison 


D 


Caption  of  issue/ 

Titre  de  depart  de  la  livraison 

Masthead/ 

Generique  (periodiques)  de  la  livraison 


n 


Additional  comments:/ 
Commentaires  supplementaires: 


This  Item  is  filmed  at  the  reduction  ratio  checked  below/ 

Ce  document  est  filme  au  taux  de  rMuction  indique  ci-dessous. 


10X 

14X 

18X 

22X 

26  X 

30X 

7 



12X 


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24  X 


28X 


32  X 


Th«  copy  filmsd  h«r«  has  b««n  raproduetd  thanks 
to  tha  gonarosity  of: 

Noranda  Earth  Sciences  Library 
University  of  Toronto 

Tha  imagas  appaaring  hara  ara  tha  bast  quality 
possibia  eonsidaring  tha  condition  and  lagibiiity 
of  tha  original  copy  and  In  kaaping  with  tha 
filming  contract  spacificationa. 


L'axamplaira  filmA  fut  raproduit  grica  k  la 
ginirositi  da: 

Noranda  Earth  Sciences  Library 
University  of  Toronto 

Las  imagas  suivantas  ont  *t4  raproduitas  avac  la 
plus  grand  soin.  compta  tanu  da  la  condition  at 
da  la  nattatA  da  raxamplaira  film*,  at  an 
conformity  avac  las  conditions  du  contrat  da 
fiimaga. 


Original  copias  in  printad  papar  covars  ara  fllmad 
baginning  with  ttta  front  covar  and  anding  on 
tha  last  paga  with  a  printad  or  illuatratad  impraa- 
sion,  or  tha  back  covar  whan  appropriata.  All 
othar  original  copias  ara  fllmad  baginning  on  tha 
first  paga  with  a  printad  or  illustratad  impraa- 
sion.  and  anding  on  tha  last  paga  with  a  printad 
or  illustratad  imprassion. 


Laa  axamplairas  originaux  dont  la  couvanura  an 
papiar  aat  imprimia  sont  filmis  an  commancant 
par  la  pramiar  plat  at  an  tarminant  soit  par  la 
darniira  paga  qui  comporta  una  amprainta 
d'imprassion  ou  d'illustration.  soit  par  la  taeond 
plat,  salon  la  cas.  Tous  las  autra;<  axamplairas 
originaux  sont  filmis  on  commancant  par  la 
pramiAra  paga  qui  comporta  una  amprainta 
d'Impraasion  ou  d'illustration  at  an  tarminant  par 
la  darniira  paga  qui  comporta  una  talia 
amprainta. 


Tha  last  racordad  frama  on  aach  microficha 
shall  contain  tha  symbol  -^  (moaning  "CON- 
TINUED"), or  tha  symbol  ▼  (moaning  "END"), 
whichavar  applias. 

Maps,  platas.  charts,  ate.  may  ba  fllmad  at 
diffarant  rac:uction  ratios.  Thosa  too  larga  to  ba 
antiraly  included  in  ona  axposura  ara  filmad 
baginning  in  tha  uppar  laft  hand  cornor.  laft  to 
right  and  top  to  bottom,  as  many  framas  as 
raquirad.  Tha  following  diagrams  illustrata  tha 
mathod: 


Un  das  symbolas  suivants  apparaitra  sur  la 
darniira  imaga  da  chaqua  microficha.  salon  la 
cas:  la  symbols  -^  signifia  "A  SUIVRE '.  la 
symbols  ▼  signifia  "FIN". 

Las  cartaa.  planchas,  tablaaux.  ate.  pauvant  itra 
film*s  A  das  uux  da  reduction  diffArents. 
Lorsqua  la  documant  ast  trop  grand  pour  Atra 
raproduit  an  un  saul  clich*.  il  ast  film*  A  psrtir 
da  I'angla  supAriaur  gaucha.  da  gauchs  i  droite, 
at  da  haut  an  bas.  an  pranant  la  nombra 
d'imagaa  nicassaira.  Las  diagrammas  suivants 
illustrant  la  mOthoda. 


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THE  CARE  OF  TREES  IN  LAWN, 
STREET  AND  PARK 


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Group  IV.     Working  with  Nature 


THE  CARE  OF  TREES 

IN  LAWN,  STREET  AND  PARK 


fflTH  A  LIST  OF  rREES  AND  SHRUBS 
FOR  DECOR  AT  I FE  USE 


BY 
BERNHARD   E.  FERNOW 

DEAN  OF  THE  FACULTY  OF  FORESTRY, 
UNIVERSITY  OF  TORONTO 


ILLUSTRATED 


NEW  YORK 
HENRY  HOLT  AND   COMPANY  j^^^ 


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HENRY   HOLT   AND  COMPANY 


Publitlitd,   April,    1910. 


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TO  MY  VENERABLE  FRIEND 

Dr.   WILLIAM    SAUNDERS 

WHO   HAS   DEVOTED  A  LIFETIME      s    ADVANv.ING 

KNOWLEDGE  OF  TREE  GROWTH  IN 

CANADA,    BOTH    IN    ITS    USEFUL 

AND    ORNAMENTAL 

ASPECTS 


PREFACE 


\ 


This  volume  is  an  accident,  as  it  were,  so  far  as  iti- 
authorship  goes.  The  author  being  a  forester  by  profession, 
and,  therefore,  concerned  \...h  the  utilitarian  use  of  trees 
rather  than  with  their  ornamental  employment,  the  subject- 
matter  of  this  volume  might  be  considered  foreign  to  his 
training.  A  forester,  however,  must  be  familiar  with  tree 
life  in  all  its  phases,  so  as  to  have  ^dgment  regarding  the 
requirements  of  trees  in  health  and  disease  and  the  proper 
care  of  them  under  all  circumstances.  Nevertheless,  it  was 
only  an  accident  that  induced  the  writer  to  devote  time  to 
the  compilation  of  the  present  volume.  A  request  by  a  tree 
owner  for  expert  advice  in  the  care  of  his  lawn  trees  dis- 
closed the  fact  that  apparently  no  satisfactory,  compre- 
hensive treatment  of  the  subject  for  amateur  planters  of 
trees  was  in  existence,  whatever  might  be  said  of  the  liter- 
ature for  specialists.  This  induced  the  writer  to  attempt  to 
set  down,  as  briefly  as  possible,  what  every  tree  owner  should 
know  of  the  care  of  trees. 

The  fact  that  the  writer  had  for  many  years  lived  in 
Washington,  D.  C,  and  had  taken  a  special  interest  in 
studying  the  composition  of  its  many  parks  —  indeed  being 
for  some  time  in  charge  of  Soldiers'  Home  Park,  also  acting 
on  a  commission  on  the  reconstruction  of  Central  Park, 
New  York  —  these  experiences  with  ornamental  tree-growth 
may  entitle  him  to  claim  the  necessary  judgment  in  selecting 
from  the  vast  amount  of  information  that  exists  on  this 

vU 


VUl 


Preface 


subject,  that  which  would  be  most  useful  to  those  readers  for 
whom  the  bo<3k  is  intended,  namely,  the  practical  lovers 
and  owners  of  trees. 

Special  acknowledgment  is  due  to  Dr.  N.  L.  Britton 
under  whose  supervision  the  drawings  of  exotic  tree  species 
—  and  only  such  have  been  illustrated  —  were  made.  It  is 
due  to  him  to  explain,  that  in  the  captions  under  these 
illustrations,  contrary  to  the  usage  of  Dr.  Britton  and 
many  other  botanists,  species  names  derived  from  patro- 
nymics have  been  capitalized  to  conform  with  the  mode  of 
notation  applied  in  the  text,  which  is  the  mode  still  in  use 
in  most  nurserymen's  catalogues. 

The  author  acknowledges  his  indebtedness  to  a  large 
number  of  publications,  too  many  to  cite,  from  which  he 
has  extracted  information,  especially  the  many  bulletins 
of  Experiment  Stations  on  combating  insects  and  fungi. 
He  claims  originality  mainly  in  the  manner  of  presentation, 
and  hopes  that  he  has  performed  a  useful  service. 

B.  E.  F. 

Toronto,  March,  1910. 


CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  ^**^^ 

1.     INTRODUCTORY i 

II.     CHARACTERISTICS,    STRUCTURE    AND    LIFE    OF 

TREES S 

Structure ^ 

Growth  and  Form  Development 8 

Physiological  Points ^7 

Ecological  Points ^i 

Recuperative  Capacity 26 

III.     DISEASE  AND  DEATH  OF  TREES.     GENERALITIES  29 

Old  Age 3° 

General  Cause  of  Disease 32 

Fungus  Diseases 3^ 

Insect  D.amage 44 

IV.     DIAGNOSING   DISEASES 5' 

Insect  Damage 53 

Fungus  and  Bacterial  Diseases 55 

Physiological  Diseases 5^ 

Effect  of  Soil  Conditions 57 

Atmospherical  Influences ^3 

Obnoxious  Gases ^8 

P^LECTRic  Currents 7' 

Light  Conditions 73 

Mechanicai    Injuries 74 

V.     CONTROL    OF    PHYSIOLOGICAL    DISEASES    AND 
TREATMENT   OF    MECHANICAL    INJURIES.— 

GENERAL  CARE  OF  TREES 76 

Soil  Improvement 77 

Fertilizing 79 

Points  in  Grading 8° 

Pruning  and  Trimming 83 

Manner  of  Oper.ation 87 

Callusing  .and  Repairing 9' 

Specific  Rules 9^ 

Pruning  for  B.^lance 9^ 

iz 


"mSSBSSBl 


Contents 


CHAPTER  '***' 

PRtnJING   FOR  F".  •-» lOO 

Pruning  Street  Trees 109 

Pruning  for  Flowers iio 

Repairing  Damage "' 

Treatment  of  Street  Trees "6 

Care  of  the  Aged m 

Quack  Medicines 123 

VI.    CONTROL  OF  PARASITES 124 

Fungus  Parasites i'4 

Insect  Parasites 128 

Civic  Cooperation iji 

General  Methods  of  Procedure 13^ 

Biting  Insects ^'^'i 

Sucking  Insects 14^ 

Mechanical  Destruction  of  Insects 144 

Borers  and  Bark-beetles 146 

Root  Destroyers 148 

Specific  Pests i49 

VII.     CARE  IN  PLANTING  TREES 168 

VIII.     ESTHETIC     FORESTRY      OR     WOODLAND     PARK 

MANAGEMENT 185 

IX.    CARE  IN  THE  CHOICE  OF  PLANT  MATERIAL     .  197 

General  Considerations 198 

List  of  Trees  Desirable  for  Sh*de  and  Ornament  206 

List  of  Shrubs 32* 

Selected   Lists  of    Plant    Material    for   Special 

Purposes 364 

BRIEF  LIST  OF  BOOKS  ON  COGNATE  SUBJECTS      ...  375 

INDEX 377 


THE    CARE    OF    TREES 


CHAPTER  I 


INTRODUCTORY 

HIS  book  is  not  e.  sentimental  effusion  on  the 
beauty  and  need  of  trees,  but  a  compilation 
of   information    such   as   the   owner   of   trees 
may  be  in  search  of. 
Throughout  our  entire  continent,  especially  in  its  more 
settled  parts,  and  most  of  all  in  its  cities,  there  has  never 
before  been  such  widespread  interest  as  is  now  manifested 
in  trees  and  tree-planting  for  shade  and  ornament.    Al- 
though this  kind  of  tree-planting  has  been  quite  assiduously 
practised  in  past  generations,  and  although  as  a  result  we 
are  the  heiis  of  stately  elms  and  oaks  and  maples,  the  neces- 
sity of  greater  care  for  this  inheritance  has  only  of  late  been 
fully  realized.    As  a  consequence,  the  '-Tree  Warden"  and 
"City  Forester"  have  become  recognized  institutions,  and 
the  statutes  of  several  states  for  the  protection  of  planted 
trees  bear  testimony  to  the  popular  sentiment,  and  to  the 
conception  that  the  care  of  public  shade  trees  is  a  public  duty. 
Although  with  this  awakened  interest  there  has  come 
forward  a  large  amount  of  Information  regarding  the  care 
of  t.ees,  in  the  form  of  bulletins  and  essays,  these  generally 
confine  themsf;lves  to  some  particular  phase  of  the  subject; 
a  collective  and  mo^    comprehensive  manual,  so  far  as  the 
writer  knows,  is  still  lacking.     It  is  to  supply  this  gaj.  that 


t   ! 


2  Introductory 

the  present  book  has  been  written.  Naturally  the  book 
does  not  bring  much,  if  any,  new  knowledge;  it  is  mainly  a 
compilation  of  the  well-known  facts  which  bear  upou  the 
subject,  selected,  however,  with  the  experience  of  a  lifetime 
spent  in  the  study  of  trees. 

Believing  that  only  a  knowledge  of  relationships,  prin- 
ciples and  reasons  enables  one  to  apply  prescriptions  intel- 
ligently, and  that  a  knowledge  of  the  nature  of  trees  is 
necessary  in  order  to  care  for  them  properly,  it  has  been 
the  endeavor  to  broaden  in  this  direction,  without,  how- 
ever, becoming  too  technical.  Technical  language  has  been 
employed  as  little  as  possible  and  technical  minutiae,  which, 
though  interesting  and  valuable,  may  in  the  ordinary  routine 
be  dispensed  with,  have  been  as  much  as  possible  avoided. 

The  attempt  to  make  the  relationships  ckar  to  laymen 
has  necessitated  their  preseatation  from  various  points  of 
view  in  the  different  chapters,  and  this  has  led  to  repeti- 
tions; but,  while  such  repetitions  may  be  censured  by  the 
literary  critic,  the  author  believes  that  they  serve  the  useful 
purpose  of  impressing  the  essentials  upon  the  reader,  and 
of  making  him  familiar  with  the  subject. 

The  care  of  shade  and  ornamental  trees  is  an  entirely 
different  matter  from  the  care  of  forests.  It  is  unfortunate 
that  the  distinction  has  not  always  been  clearly  perceived. 
The  object  of  forestry  is  the  substance  of  the  tree:  only 
when  the  tree  is  cut  and  its  wood  utilized,  is  the  object  of 
the  forester  attained:  he  grows  trees,  not  to  be  preserved, 
but  to  be  harvested.  Hence  to  call  the  tree-wardens  of 
towns  and  cities  "foresters"  is  a  misnomer.  The  tree  that 
satisfies  the  for*  r  is  most  unsatisfactory  to  the  landscape 
gardener  or  strt^i  tree  planter,  and  vice  versa.  The  latter 
arboriculturists  are  after  shade  or  beauty  of  form,  hence 
their  treatment  of  trees  is  entirely  different  from  that  of  the 


■«■■■■ 


Introductory  3 

forester,  although,  to  secure  the  object  in  either  c^,  Jhe 
nature  and  life  t.litory  or  trees  must  be  understood.  On 
the  other  hand,  no  more  fitting  title,  no  better  descnption 
of  the  duties  of  those  who  are  set  to  care  for  our  roadside 
trees  or  our  city  trees  in  street  and  park  could  be  mvented 
than  that  of  "tree-warden,"  a  most  expressive,  dignified, 
and  honorable  designation. 

To  the  owner  of  trees  who  appreciates  the  value  of  his 
nroperty  and  who  realizes  that  it  is  an  investment  wl  ich 
can  be  duplicated  only  in  tiiuc  a.id  by  time,  it  is  not  neces- 
sary to  point  out  that  it  is  worth  his  while  to  take  care  of 
it     No  millionaire  can  replace  the  ancient  spreading  oak 
or  the  shapely  old  elm  in  his  lawn  by  any  amount  of  expend- 
iture- these  'are  the  heirlooms  of  hundreds  of  years,  and 
years  alone  can  replace  them.    The  Massachusetts  courts 
adiudging  ihe  value  of  shade  trees  in  damage  as  from  Sx5o 
to  $200  hardly  come  up  to  the  full  appreciation  of  their 
full  worth.    Even  though  it  is  possible  to  transplant  fuU- 
grown  old  trees,  it  cannot  be  done  with  assurance  of  success, 
or  at  least  not  without  interference  with  the  natural  form 
of  the  crown;  in  any  case  such  tra^r-^^ants  are  a  hazard. 

On  the  other  hand,  trees  in  place  uiay  be  rendered  almost 
imperishable  by  proper  care  and  attention. 

To  bring  about  this  result  requires  some  knowledge  ot 
the  nature  of  trees,  and  also  of  the  ills  that  may  befaU  them. 
It  is  only  through  such  knowledge  that  we  are  able  to  guard 
against  the  diseases  and  dangers  which  destroy  prematurely 
so  many  valuable  specimens  on  our  lawns,  and  in  our  streets 

and  parks.  , 

Many  of  the  fine  remnants  of  former  forest  glory  or  ot 
old-time  planting  which  adorn  the  grounds  of  our  wealthy 
citizens  and  of  our  more  humble  home  makers  go  to  pieces, 
graduaUy,  unobserved,  and  unnecessarUy,  because  of  neglect 


/ 


^  Introductory 

and  carelessness;  a  little  care  at  the  proper  time  would  have 
saved  the  investment  which  cannot  be  duplicated  in  the 
owner's  lifetime. 

In  almost  every  small  and  large  town  in  the  United  States 
there  has  been  a  remarkable  activity  in  the  planting  of 
street  trees  during  the  last  fifty  years;  but  for  the  lack  of 
care  the  majority,  perhaps,  of  these  trees  have  become 
cripples,  d.omed  sooner  or  later  to  an  untimely  death, 
The  public  usually  recognizes  only  the  foliage  and  the 
shade,  and  fails  to  observe  the  insidious  work  of  fungi, 
induced  through  breakages  and  bad  pruning,  and  over- 
looks the  unsightly  scars  and  wounds  and  stubs  which 
bring  about  this  premature  decline  and  death  — all  for 

lack  of  care. 

To  make  owners  of  shade  and  ornamental  trees  more 
sensible  to  the  care  and  attention  which  their  property 
demands,  to  give  them  not  only  more  interest  but  also  spe- 
cific advice,  a  "first  aid"  toward  a  knowledge  of  what  this 
care  should  be,  and  to  assist  tree-wardens  in  caring  for  their 
charges  with  more  circumspectio.\,  this  book  is  written. 

It  is  hoped  that  the  perusal  of  these  pages  will  enable  any 
interested  owner  of  trees  to  make  himself  intelligent  as  to 
the  nature  of  trees,  to  help  himself  in  most  cases  in  their 
care,  to  avoid  foolish  practices  advised  by  the  quacks,  and 
to  superintend  intelligently  the  execution  of  professional 
advice.  For  this  purpose  it  is  necessary  first  to  have  some 
knowledge  of  the  life  of  trees  and  of  their  behavior  in  nor- 
mal conditions,  for  then  only  will  it  be  possible  to  recognize 
abnormal  conditions,  to  diagnose  disease,  and  understand 
the  rationale  in  the  use  of  the  remedies. 

It  must,  however,  never  be  forgotten  that  the  judgment  of 
an  experienced  man  is  sometimes  necessary  to  diagnose  the 
cabc  correctly,  and  to  prescribe  for  it. 


I 


CHAPTER  n 


CHARACTERISTICS,  STRUCTURE,  AND  LIFE  OF 

TREES 

HE  woody  plants,  trees,  shrubs,  and  some  vines, 
differ  from  all  other  plants  in  at  least  two 
directions:  namely,  in  their  persistent  life, 
with  only  temporary  rest  periods  in  growth,  — 
a  characteristic  which  indicates  differences  in  structure  from 
that  of  annuals  —  and  in  their  elevation  in  height  above 
the  rest  of  vegetation,  which  implies,  besides  difference  in 
structure,  difference  in  performing  the  functions  of  life. 

Trees  as  a  rule  show  these  two  characteristics  '  height  and 
persistency  of  life  in  a  most  pronounced  degree.  In  addi- 
tion, they  differ  from  shrubs  and  vines  by  their  form;  namely, 
a  single  stem,  rising  from  the  ground,  —  the  bole  or  trunk, 
—  which  develops  more  strongly  than  the  branches,  into 
which  it  divides  in  characteristic  fashion,  and  which  in  their 
aggregate  may  be  differentiated  as  the  crown.  These  char- 
acteristics of  form,  longevity,  and  height  make  trees  the 
most  prominent  and  one  of  the  most  important,  and  most 
interesting  features  in  the  living  vegetable  world. 

To  be  able  to  care  for  trees,  to  diagnose  diseases  or  abnor- 
mal conditions  and  to  apply  remedies  judiciously,  it  is  neces- 
sary CO  know  and  understand  something  of  the  structure, 
and  of  the  life  requirements  of  a  healthy  tree  in  normal 
condition.  Indeed,  we  may  say  that  only  to  the  extent 
that  this  primary  knowledge  is  possessed,  can  a  rational 
treatment  of  trees  be  expected. 

5 


6      Characteristics,  Structure,  Life  of  Trees 

Structure.  That  a  tree,  like  every  other  living  thing,  is 
composed  of  tissues  made  uj)  of  minute  cells  varying  in 
shape,  size,  and   thickness  of  cell-wall,  is  probably  well 


Fig.  I.  —Cell  structure  of  a  tree,  (i)  Appearance  of  a  section  of  spruce 
wood,  natural  size;  (2)  Cell  structure  of  same,  magnified  100  times  (after 
Hartig,  from  Department  of  Agriculture,  Forestry  Division  Bulletin,  No.  10). 

known  to  everybody.  But  that  the  bulk  of  the  bole  of  the 
tree  is  really  not  living  but  dead  tissue,  composed  of  cell 
cases  without  living  contents,  is  perhaps  less  well  known. 
While  partially  active  in  conducting  water,  most  of  the 
wood  is  merely  supporting  tissue.    It  is  for  this  reason 


Cell  Structure  7 

that  a  tree  may  have  its  heart  riddled  and  eaten  out  by 
fungi  without  losing  in  anything  but  firmness  and  stability. 

Cell  Structure.  The  living  tissue  of  the  bole  lies  on  the 
outside  of  the  wood,  between  bark  and  wood,  —  a  narrow 
layer  of  a  few  cells,  called  the  rambium,  enveloping  the  dead 
wood.  This  layer,  by  division  and  growth  of  the  cells 
forming  it,  makes  the  new  wood  of  the  year,  the  "annual 
ring,"  which  again  dies  for  the  most  part,  soon  after  it  is 
formed,  only  the  outermost  cell  tissues,  the  cambium  cells, 
remain  fully  alive,  i.e.,  capable  of  growth  and  subdivision.' 

Injury  to  this  portion  is,  therefore,  directly  of  conseqtience 
to  the  welfare  of  the  tree. 

Besides  the  cambium  layer,  there  are  two  other  points  at 
which  persistently  living  cells  are  concentrated;  namely, 
the  tip<:  of  the  -tots  or  fibrils,  and  the  tips  of  the  shoots, 
the  so-called  growing  points  or  buds.  From  the  buds  the 
shoots  and  leaves  develop,  the  latter  remaining  living  for 
only  a  few  months,  or,  in  the  case  of  the  needles  of  conif- 
erous trees,  for  a  few  years. 

It  is,  then,  after  all  only  one  year's  product  that  really 
lives,  in  the  full  sense  of  the  word,  and  this  living  por- 
tion encloses  a  mass  of  tissues  which  ha\'e  lost  their  life, 
although  they  may  be  still  of  service  to  the  tree  in  conducting 
and  storing  water  or  food,  in  giving  stability  (>  her  ways. 

The  outer  bark  also  dies,  new  bark  being  ..icd  on  the 
inside  next  the  cambium;  and,  as  the  growth  of  the  annual 
ring  of  wood  and  bark  on  the  inside  proceeds,  the  outer 
dead  portions  of  bark  must  give  way  under  the  pressure  of 
the  interior  growth.  In  most  cases  these  dead  portions  of  bark 
break  in  characteristic  form  into  fissures,  ridges,  plates,  or 
scales,  which  may  sooner  or  later  loosen  and  be  sloughed  ofT. 

•  This  is  not  entirely  true,  for  certain  tissues  like  the  pith  rays  may  be 
still  considered  as  living. 


8       Characteristics,  Structure,  Life  of  Trees 


In 


i    I 


I 

■    it 


This  thick  or  outer  bark  is,  therefore,  of  no  direct  use  in 
the  life  of  the  tree,  though  indirectly  it  may  be  of  use  in 
protecting  the  living  tissue  underneath  against  heat  and 
cold,  against  drying  out  and  against  mechanical  injury. 
The  scraping  of  bark,  so  often  foolishly  practised,  is,  there- 
fore, in  most  cases  either  useless,  or  even,  as  it  reduces  the 
protection,  injurious.  Its  only,  yet  doubtful,  usefulness 
may  be  found  in  curtailing  the  chance  for  insects  to  hide 
their  eggs  or  cocoons;  and,  under  certain  abnormal  con- 
ditions, \v.  on  the  tree  is  "bark  bound,"  the  operation  of 
barking  or  slitting  the  bark  may  then  be  found  useful  in 
removing  pressure,  although  other  means  of  overcoming  the 
trouble  are  probably  better. 

Growth  and  Form  Development.  Except  in  the  trees  of 
the  i)alm  tribe  (which  do  not  increase  much  in  diameter,  but 
;^tart  from  the  seed  in  nearly  full  size  of  girth)  the  growth 
of  the  tree  in  thickness  takes  place  by  division  and  growth 
of  the  cambium  cells,  annually  adding  a  cone-like  envclopj 
over  the  whole  bo<iy  of  the  previous  years;  in  cross  section 
these  annual  envelopes  appear  as  "annual  rings."  Hence 
the  age  of  a  tree  can  be  determined  from  the  number  of  rings, 
if  it  is  cut  low  enough  to  include  the  first  year's  growth. 
Only  under  rare  conditions  does  the  tree,  in  countries  with 
a  definite  growing  season,  fail  to  make  this  annual  growth, 
or  does  it  make  apparently  two  or  more  such  rings. 

The  growth  in  height  Oi  in  length  of  branches  and  in  the 
spreading  of  the  crown  is  secured  by  addition  of  new  shoots, 
which  arc  developed  from  the  buds.  These  shoots  grow 
in  length  only  during  the  season  in  which  they  are  formed, 
then  become  rigid,  and  in  these,  no  more  growth  in  length 
but  only  in  thickness  is  experienced  in  subsequent  seasons. 
The  end-bud,  which  usually  terminates  the  year's  shoot, 
if  not  lost  by  frost  or  drouth  during  the  winter  (and  in  some 


VlG.  ;.  —  A  tree,  i<)mi)letely  hollow  at  the  t>ase,  but  with  the  crown  alive 

and  fully  (levcloiH-'d. 


i  i 


i* 


I    I! 


10     Characteristics,  Structure,  Life  of  Trees 

species  it  is  regularly  so  lost),  or  else  a  side-bud  near  the  tip, 
resumes  the  activity  in  the  next  season  and  lengthens  the 


ulai  buds 


wat«r  A    minpral.l 


heartroot    )fttV\       ^^^^        heart  root 
Up- root 

Fig.  7,.  —  Diagrammatic  view  of  the  various  parts  and  functions  of  a  tree. 

twig,  forming  at  the  same  time  the  leaves,  and  possibly  flowers. 

In   this  way,  from   season  to  season,  story  after  storv  is 

built  up:  each  twig,  lengthening  by  additions  and  also  gain- 


Growth  and  Form  Development 


II 


ing  in  diameter  by  additions, 
grows  into  a  branch;  new 
branchlets  start  from  buds 
along  the  length  of  the  mother 
shoot,  the  daughter  shoots 
forming  side  branches,  and  by 
repeated  ramifications,  gradu- 
ally from  year  to  year,  the 
crown  is  built  up,  character- 
istic in  form  and  followina 
well-known  laws,  typical  for 
each  species. 

One  important  fact  to  be  ob- 
served in  this  process  of  build- 
ing up  a  crown  is,  that  not  all 
the  buds  which  are  formed  on 
the  twig  develop  into  shoots; 
some  remain   undeveloped  or 
dormant    as   buds,   some  are 
frozen,  some  dried   up,  some 
eaten  or  broken  off;  and  e\cn 
of  the  shoots  which  have  been 
develojjed   not   all  grow    into 
limbs  or  branches:  many  are 
lost  sooner  or  later  by  causes 
similar  to  those  which  destroy 
the   buds,  and    by  the   with- 
drawal of  light  and  food,  as  the  p^  ^'^TT^ 

.     ,  Fig.    4. —  Bud    Structure    (Maple), 

Upjier    Jjortions   of    the    crown        A,    longitudinal    section    through 


develop  and  cut  off  from  the 
less  fa\orably  placed  portions 
the  necessaries  of  life.    Just  as 


branch  up;  g,  end  bud;  s,  lateral 
buds;  /,  scars  of  leaves  of  last  sea- 
son. B.  cross  section  through  bud, 
showing  folded  leaxes  in  center  and 
scales  surrounding  them. 


in  the  animal  world  the  struggle  for  existence  necessitates 


i 


12     Characteristics,  Structure,  Life  of  Trees 

violent  death  and  diminution  in  numbers,  more  or  less  pro- 
portionate to  food  supply  and  new  births,  in  order  to  keep 
an  equilibrium,  so  in  the  forest  a  constant  diminution  of 
individuals  takes  place  as  the  stand  grows  up  and  the  indi- 
vidual trees  expand,  competing  for  the  limited  air  space  and 
root  space. 


Fig.  4a.  —  Thcoretkal   (B)   and  ai  tual  (.1)  devdopmi-nt  of  J)U(Is.      (From 
Department  of  Agrkulture,  Forestry  for  Farmers,  after  Muller.) 

So  also  in  the  individual  tree  there  exists  a  competition 
for  light  and  water  between  the  many  buds,  twigs,  and 
branches,  and  sooner  or  later  some  must  succumb  as  their 
number  increases  and  the  supplies  become  relatively  less. 

As  a  result,  in  the  full  grown  tree  rarely  more  than  eight 
or  ten  generations  of  branches  can  be  counted,  —  the  sur- 
vivals of  this  competition;  the  rest  having  been  killed  out, 
and  being  annually  killed  out,  by  the  necessity  of  household 


•^ 


Growth  and  Form  Development 


13 


economy.  If  this  were  not  so,  if  all  the  buds  formed  and  all 
the  branches  developed  in  mathematical  order,  very  different 
forms  frc.m  those  with  which  we  are  acquainted  would  result. 
This  observation  of  the  natural  priming  of  buds  and  twigs 
— withdrawal  of  water  and  light  killing  them  and  wind  storms 
breaking  them  otY  —  which  takes  place  annually,  especially 
as  the  trees  grow  older,  is  important  in  taking  care  of  trees. 
It  teaches  that  not  all  dying  or  dead  branchlets,  which  we 
find  on  the  normally  developed  tree,  indicate  any  disease 
or  abnormal  condition.  It  teaches  that  pruning  is  not  an 
unnatural  but  a  necessary  operation  which,  if  neglected 
and  not  systematically  directed  by  man,  will  be  done  by 
nature  in  a  haphazard  manner  without  ref- 
erence to  the  wishes  of  man  as  to  form.. 
We  learn  from  this  that  with  the  expanding 
crown  some  parts,  the  less  favorably  lighted 
ones,  as  for  instance  the  interior  or  the  lowest 
portions  in  a  conifer,  must  eventually  be  lost, 
and,  if  v>e  remove  them  in  time,  we  have  it 
in  our  power  to  direct  the  development  of 
the  tree  in  form,  favoring  in  the  competition 
those  parts,  which  we  desire  to  preserve  or 
develop. 

Another  fact  in  the  development  of  the 
crown,  which  from  different  points  of  view 
interests  the  forester  perhaps  more  than  the 
tree-warden  is,  that  every  regularly  formed 
brp^  h  or  limb  has  its  origin,  its  base,  in  the  Fig.  5.— Diagram 
v^ry  center  of  the   trunk  or   branch  from     nectio'Jf  of^ali 


branches 
the  pith. 


with 


which  it  arises,  its  pith  or  central  portion 

being  in  direct  connection  with  the  pith  of 

the  bole  or  mother  branch.     The  growth  of  wood  which 

takes  place  annually  on  the  bole  or  mother  branch  envelops 


3     i 


f     ' 


14     Characteristics,  Structure,  Life  of  Trees 

the  base  of  the  daughter  branch  more  and  more,  while  the 

latter  itself  is  also  growing  in  diameter. 

The  foresicr  is  interested  in  this 
method  of  branch  formation,  be- 
cause he  knows  that,  owing  to  it, 
every  branch  or  lin^     which  once 
existtxl  will  produce  a  "knot"  in 
the  lumber,  although  this  lumber 
may  be  sawed  from  an  apparently 
branchless  bole.      As  long  as  the 
limb  remained  alive,  this  will  be 
a  "sound"  knot;    after  the  limb 
has  died,   it   will   be   a    "loose" 
knot   (in  conifers),  or  a  decayed 
knot,  leaving  a  blemish  or  hole  in 
the   board.     The  forester,   there- 
fore, attempts  to  grow  his  trees  so 
as  to  kill  out  most  limbs  as  early 
as  possible  in  order  to  reduce  the 
size  and  number  of  knots  and  thus 
secure  a  branchless  bole. 

Fig.  6.-Metho,i  of  formation        ^^'''^"'    however,    a    branch    is 
of  a  knot.     Seven  annual    broken  or  cut  olT,  a  dormant  bud 

la)-ers  of   wood;    a,  b,  lia.sal  1        1         • 

parts  of  a  liirh  which  iive<l    "^^X  develop  mto  "  branch.     Such 

!rke-  o.r'nearthr'st:"'     ^'"'■"^^"^  ^"^^    ■•'''  connected  with 

This  leaves  a '•  sound "  knot    the  })ith  bv  a  fme  trace  of  pithv 

to  the  left   of  ,;.  the   hranch     rnof^-;,,!     „'*     I  1  l' 

stub  to  the  right  forming  a    "i^tcnal   not   large  enough  to  be 
"dead"  knot  soon  to  he  cov-    noted  as  an  imperfection. 

ered   by   the  growing  stem.  ^  .  '      . 

(From  Department  of  .Agri-        1  here    IS    an    mtercst    in    this 
.Vc].'"o).  '""'''   ''""'""•    Structural  peculiarity  which  con- 
cerns the  tree-warden.    The  center 
or  pith  of  the  branch  or  bole,  which   form?  a  direct    and 
continuous  communication  through  the  entire  tree  from  the 


Growth  and  Form  Development  i^ 

tips  of  the  roots  to  the  tips  of  the  crown  with  all  its 
ramification  of  branches,  consists  of  very  loose,  thin-walled 
cell  tissues;  hence  it  affords  an  easy  pathway  for  the  growth 
of  the  mycelium  of  wood -destroying  fungi.  It  is  along  this 
line  of  least  resistance  that  the  most  rapid  progress  of  rot  is 
made,  and  hence  there  is  need  for 
particular  attention  to  the  branch 
wounds  where  the  fungus  enters. 

The  root  system  develops  in  a 
manner  somewhat  similar  to  the 
crown,  lengthening  and  ramifying 
by  annual  additions  and  increas- 
ing in  diameter  by  division  and 
growth  of  cambium  cells.  There 
are,  however,  differences  in  devel- 
opment, due,  no  doubt,  to  the 
difference  of  the  medium  in  which 
the  roots  live.  The  soil  offering 
more  resistance  than  the  air,  the 
ramifications  are  less  regular.  Instead  of  having  more  or 
less  systematically  arranged  buds  from  which  new  roots 
may  form,  irregular  growing  points  may  arise  on  any  part 
of  the  root  where  the  bark  is  not  too  resistant,  thus  pro- 
ducing the  r  owth.  The  root  system  is  therefore  less 
regular,  less  metrical  th  ■'  the  crown  system.  Never- 
theless, as  wt  recognize  typical  forms  of  crowns  like  that 
of  the  conical  conifer,  the  spreading  oak,  the  vase-shaped 
elm,  so  there  are  typical  root  systems,  which  fact  has  more 
bearing  upon  the  form  of  ornamental  and  shade  trees,  than 
is  usually  recognized. 

Although  the  root  systems  of  most  trees  are  very  adaptive, 
there  is  a  limit  to  the  adapiailun,  and,  as  the  trees  grow 
older,  the  difficulty  of  adaptation  grows  greater,  and  shows 


tiG  7-  —  Method  of  formation 
of  adventitious  branches  from 
the  growth  of  dormant  buds. 


1 6     Characteristics,  Structure,  Life  of  Trees 


( . 


»■  ii 


itself  in  change  of  form  of  crown,  or  in  lack  of  vigor.    An 
entirely  different  shape  from  the  expected  may  develop. 

There  are  three  types  of  root  systems:  the  tap-root,  the 
heart-root,  and  the  tracing-root;  in  s(>me  species  the  type 
is  and  remains  \'ery  pronounced,  in  others  a  change  and 
adaptation  is  more  easih  effected. 

The  tap-root,  perpendicular  like  the  bole  of  a  conifer  and 
penetrating  deep  into  the  ground,  is  adapted  to  deep  soils, 
and  the  difficulty  of  maintaining  a  hickory,  a  walnut,  a  fir, 
or  some  of  the  pines  in  a  soil  which  is  shallow  — due  to 
rocks  or  impenetrable  layers,  or  groundwater  close  to  the 
surface  —  is  often  due  to  the  inability  of  adaptation  of  their 
tap-root  systems. 

The  oak,  also  a  tap-root  tree,  adapts  itself  more  readily 
than  those  mentioned,  splits  up  its  tap-root  into  several  strong 
heart-roots,  and  develops  a  considerable  quantity  of  surface 
or  tracing-roots,  but  then  the  short,  stubby  stature  am'  rapid 
tapering  of  the  tree  above  ground  shows  that  it  is  not  in 
its  natural  condition.     Elm,  ash,  and  linden  behave  in  a 
similar  manner,  hickory  and  walnut  resent  curtailment  of 
their  tap-root  more  strenuously,  and  hence  are  difficult  to 
transplant  or  to  grow  on  shallow  soils.    The  spruce,  on  the 
other  hand,  is  one  of  the  trees,  which,  with  a  typical  tracing- 
root  system,  developing  horizontally  in  the  uppei  soil  strata, 
can  occupy  the  shallow  soils  without  effect  on  its  form  devel- 
opment.    So  can  willows,  poplars,  and  birches,  while  beech 
and  maple  with  a  regular  heart-root  system  made  up  of 
several  strong  roots  descending  obliquely  into  the  ground, 
stand  between  the  two  types  first  mentioned,  both  in  require- 
ment for  soil  depth,  and  in  adaptability. 

With  the  recognition  of  these  characteristics  in  root 
development  we  shall  not  expect  the  same  species  of  trees 
to  produce   the   same  form   and   rem.ain   alike   under   all 


•V. 


'^^- 


Physiological  Points  17 

conditions.  To  this  very  important  relation  which  exists 
between  root  and  crown  development  we  shall  refer  again 
further  on. 

Instead  of  leaves,  fhe  youngest  parts,  i.e.,  the  tips  of  the 
roots,  are  beset  with  xlne  hairs;  delicate  structures  which 
serve  the  purpose  of  taking  up  water.  The  root-hairs  Uve 
only  a  very  short  time,  hardly  through  the  season,  being 
ever  replaced  by  new  hairs  near  the  tip,  which  constantly 
pushes  into  new  soil.  The  tips  of  the  roots,  therefore,  are 
the  most  important  part  of  this  organ  for  the  life  functions 
of  the  tree. 

Physiological  Points.  We  may  now  take  a  brief  glimpse 
into  the  household  affairs  of  the  tree,  —  the  manner  in  which 
it  lives. 

The  essential  fact  which  must  be  realized  is,  that  the 
leaves  and  buds  at  one  end,  and  the  tips  and  youngest  parts 
of  the  rocts  at  the  other  end,  with  the  cambium  layer  con- 
necting the  two,  are  the  living  tissues,  and  hence  the  main 
factors  in  the  household.    The  tips  and  youn-est  ends  of 
the  roots  or  rootlets,  densely  beset  with  little  hairs,  are  the 
mechanism  which  takes  up  the  water  and  minerals  from 
the  soil.     These  are  conducted  through  the  roots  by  way 
of  the  cambium  and  the  younger  wood  and  bark  to  the 
leaves.     The  leaves  in  turn  take  up  carbonic  acid  from  the 
air,  decompose  it  in  their  green  parts  (chlorophyll)  under 
the  influence  of  light,  and  combine  it  with  the  minerals  and 
water  into  food  materials  which  can  be  used  in  building  up 
the  body  of  the  tree.     This  process  is  caUed  assimilation. 
The  food   materials,  manufactured  in  the  leaves,  wander 
through  the  veins  and  stalks  of  the  leaves  into  the  cambium 
and  the  youngest  wood  and  bark  of   the  stem  and  root, 
where  they  are  used  in  new  growth  during  the  season,  making 
the  annual  ring,  or  else  arc  stored  (especially  in  the  pith  rays) 


^! 


1  i. 


I 


i    ' 


i 


1 8     Characteristics,  Structure,  Life  of  Trees 

for  next  year's  growth  all  the  vvuy  down  to  the  root  tips. 
The  stored  material  is  then  used  the  following  spring  to  form 
leaves  and  shoots  and  new  rootlets. 

The  whole  mechanism  of  the  tree  can  be  compared  to  a 
sytsem  of  water  works  — water  being  the  most  important 
factor  in  the  life  of  the  plant  —  the  root  tips  being  the  pumps 
or  valves  taking  up  water  with  minerals  m  solution  from  the 
soil.  The  roots  and  stem  and  branches  are  the  conducting 
pipes;  the  leaves  are  the  engines  where  the  power  is  applied 
which  sets  the  current  in  motion:  namely,  heat,  light,  wind, 
and  other  causes  of  transpiration  (evaporation). 

In  the  leaves,  which  may  also  be  regarded  as  the  stomach 
of  the  plant,  the  raw  food  is  digested  and  assimilated  into 
a  form  in  which  it  may  be  used  by  the  plant,  and  thence  it 
is  carried  by  osmosis  '  to  {)laces  where  it  is  needed. 

It  stands  to  reason  that  the  amount  of  foliage  which  is 
active  under  the  influence  of  light,  determines  the  amount 
of  assimilated  food  material  which  will  be  at  the  disposal  of 
the  tree  and  hence  the  amount  of  growth.  The  leaves  and 
their  healthy  function  are,  therefore,  of  the  highest  im- 
portance to  the  tree;  but  just  as  important  is  the  number 
of  root  tips  capable  of  securing  water  and  the  necessary 
minerals. 

For  best  results  the  amount  of  active  foliage  and  of  active 
rootlets  must  be  in  direct  proportion;  and,  indeed,  there  is 
such  a  close  relation  between  the  two,  that  if  for  some  rea- 
son the  normal  amount  of  active  leaf  surface  is  reduced,  as 
by  insect  injury,  a  corresponding  amount  of  rootlets  may 
die  because  not  fed,  unless  a  surplus  of  stored  material  is 
available.  Even  more  surely,  if  the  root  system  is  in  any 
way  curtailed,  as  for  instance  when  a  cut  for  a  street  is  made, 

•  Osmosis    is  the  name  for  the  process  by  which   liquids  are  diflfused 
through  membranes. 


Physiological  Points 


'? 


19 

or  the  ground  lowered,  or  if  the  roots  fail  to  be  supplied  with 
sufficient  water,  the  foliage  and  with  it  the  whole  crown  will 
suffer  in  proportion. 

GeneraUy  speaking,  each  side  of  the  crown  is  in  more  or 
less  direct  relation  with  the  same  side  of  the  root  system,  the 
roots  living  on  one  side  feeding  the  foliage  on  that  side,  and 
vice  versa.  There  is,  in  other  words,  more  or  less  direct 
reciprocity  between  branch  and  roots.  Hence,  if  a  root  on 
one  side  of  a  tree  is  cut  through  a  branch  on  or  near  that 
side  may  die  or  suffer.  As  the  shoots  lengthen  each  year,  so 
the  roots  lengthen;  and  since  only  the  youngest  root  tips 
remain  active  in  taking  up  water,  it  stands  to  reason  that 
they  must  be  fed  in  order  to  renew  themselves,  and  to  per- 
form their  function. 

Anything  that  prevents  the  descent  of  'ood  material  from 
the  leaves,  as  when  by  partial  or  total  girdling  '  of  the  tree 
the  conducting  tissue  is  reduced,  wiU  therefore  starve  and 
eventuaUy  kill  the  root  system,  partiaUy  or  entirely.  Con- 
versely, if  the  root  cannot  furnish  enough  water  to  the  leaves, 
these  must  wither  and  die,  and  finally  the  whole  tree  will  suc- 
cumb. Again,  if  any  of  the  needed  minerals  are  deficient  in 
the  soil,  this  fact  wiU  be  indicated  by  at  least  some  abnormal 
development  in  the  foliage,  changes  of  color,  size,  form,  etc. 
The  interdependence,  then,  of  roots  and  leaves  is  complete, 
an  important  fact  in  diagnosing  abnormal  conditions  of 
either. 

Normally,  the  leaves  elaborate  the  food  materials  during 
the  summer  in  sufficient  quantity  to  supply  all  the  material 
of  the  present  year's  growth,  and,  in  addition,  also  accumu- 
late a  surplus,  which  wanders  out  of  the  leaves  before  tfieir 
faU,  and  is  stored  in  the  wood  to  be  used  for  next  spring's 

'  Girdling  is  the  cutting  through  the  .ambium  laver,  or  taking  off  a  ring 
of  bark  around  a  tree.  ^ 


!/ 


mm 


I? 


I 
I 

i 

I 

I 

I 


20    Characteristics,  Structure,  Life  of  Trees 

growth  of  buds  and  foliage.  Hence  a  deficiency  in  food 
elaboration  or  defoliation  in  one  year  may,  according  to  the 
time  when  it  occurs,  influence  the  growth  and  health  of  tfiat 
and  the  next  year;  or  the  unfavorable  season  of  one  year 
may  not  show  its  effects  until  the  following  season. 

Besides  food,  a  tree,  like  an  animal,  needs  air  or  oxygen 
for  respiration.  The  imjiortance  of  this  fact  is  perhaps 
very  imperfectly  realized  by  the  unmitiated.  Yet  not  only 
the  leaves  bu»  also  the  twigs,  branches  and  bole,  and  even 
the  roots  have  breathing  pores  in  the  developed  fissures 
of  the  bark,  for  the  purpose  of  conducting  air  into  the 
interior. 

That  the  roots  must  breathe  is  often  forgotten,  as  when 
trees  are  planted  too  deep,  or  when  ground  is  filled  in  on 
top  of  them.  Many  a  tree  is  lost  by  this  ignorance.  The 
more  compact  the  soil  and  the  deeper  the  cover,  the  surer 
and  quicker  the  result ;  the  tree  dying  from  sutTocation.  The 
same  result  is  induced  by  flooding,  or  even  a  very  rainy  sea- 
son may,  on  compact  soil,  so  reduce  the  aeration  of  the  \oots 
as  to  kill  them.  Trees  growing  in  swamps  have  adapted 
themselves  gradually  to  the  dilTiculty  of  root  respiration, 
and  the  ground  around  trees  grown  in  such  conditions  may 
be  filled  up  without  the  same  detriment  that  would  come  to 
trees  not  so  adapted. 

Whenever  there  is  a  change  made  in  the  surroundings, 
especially  in  soil  and  in  light  conditions,  there  must  take 
place  an  adaptation  of  the  root  system  to  the  change.  The 
tree,  however,  can  make  this  adaptation  only  gradually, 
hence  any  contemplated  change  in  the  environment  must  be 
made  by  degrees  or  else  the  tree  will  suffer. 

It  appears  from  the  brief  description  of  the  household 
economy  of  the  tree,  that  the  requisites  for  tree  life  are, 
like  that  of  other  plants,  first  of  all,  at  the  root :  — 


1 

Ecological  Poiiits  j^- 

1  If 

Water,  available  in  such  a  way  that  it  can  be  libsorbcd 
by  the  roots;  this  depending  upon  physical  and  chemical 
conditions  of  the  soil 

Minerals,  of  certain  kinds,  in  available  form  but  only  in 
small  quantities,  such  as  are  found  in  almost  all  soils. 
Air,  for  respiration. 

The  amount  required  of  these  supplies  varies  with  differ- 
ent species  and  with  their  gradual  adaptation  to  existing 
conditions,  also  with  the  conditions  at  the  other  end,  namely, 
the  environment  of  the  foliage. 

Here  the  indispensable  air  for  respiration  and  carbon 
supply  is  almost  invariably  present,  but  in  addition  there 
are  required :  — 

Certain  conditions  of  the  air  as  regards  temperature  and 
humidity  in  order  to  produce  the  so-called  transpiration, 
i.e.,  evaporation  of  water  from  the  leaf  surface.  This  pro- 
duces a  stream  of  water  flowing  from  the  roots  through  the 
young  wood  the  carrier  of  minerals  upward  and  of  assim- 
ilated food  materials  downward  as  needed. 
In  addition  there  is  necessary: 

Light  of  certain  intensity  to  produce  'he  chemical  action 
in  the  leaves  by  which  the  food  materials  are  digested  or 
assimilattv  . 

Ecological  Points.  This  relation  and  adaptation  of  the 
plant  to  its  surroundings  has  been  called  its  ecology. 

Some  of  these  -onditions  of  environment  are  unalterable 
in  any  locality  and  situation;  cHmate  in  general  and  the 
seasons  being,  of  course,  uncontrollable  by  man. 

The  adaptation  of  species  to  given  climates  has  been 
accomplished  during  ages  in  such  a  manner  as  to  assign 
to  them  fields  of  distribution  within  which  they  are  found 
by  nature,  i.e.,  within  which  they  can  perform  their  life 
functions    satisfactorily.      This   process   of    adaptation   is 


22     Characteristics,  Structure,  Life  of  Trees 


I  * 


unquestionably  still  going  on,  s|xx:ics  increasing  their  field  of 
distribution,  and  also  changing  their  functions  to  meet 
changes  in  climate,  or  else  succumbing  and  dying  out 
through  inability  to  adapt  themselves.  But  this  is  a  matter 
of  long-continued  evolution  and  very  gradual  change,  in 
which  thousands  of  individuals  succumb  while  a  few  selected 
ones  are  adapted.  Artificial  a 'climn.tization,  therefore,  is 
probably  not,  at  least  practically,  within  the  means  of  man, 
as  far  as  the  long-lived  arborescent  forms  are  concerned, 
whatever  may  be  accomplished  with  annuals,  or  even  with 
shrubs,  which  send  out  new  shoots  from  the  root-stock 
annually.  But  transfer  from  one  locality  to  another  where 
the  tree  is  not  native  has  been  practised  successfully,  the 
assumption  being  that  the  climate  of  tlie  new  location  was 
favorable  to  the  exotic  newcomer.  Whether  or  not  such 
transfer  may  be  succes.s!'ully  made  is  in  general  a  matter  of 
trial,  climate  being  too  complicated  a  matter  to  permit  ready 
comparison  and  prediction  of  the  adaptation  of  the  plant 
to  us  new  surroundings.  We  have  only  a  few  points. for 
basing  a  judgment  as  to  the  probability  of  success.  It  is,  for 
instance,  not  likely  that  a  tropical  species  or  one  of  southern 
warm  latitudes  will,  as  a  rule,  adapt  itself  to  a  northern 
climate.  Species  from  moist  climates  are  apt  to  succumb 
in  dry  ones.  The  nearer  in  temperature  and  moisture  the 
climate  is  to  that  of  the  native  habitat,  the  greater  the  likeli- 
hood of  success  in  transj)lanting  a  species. 

Cases  are  known  when  the  new  environment  has  proved 
even  more  favorable  to  the  development  of  exotics  than  to 
that  of  its  native  flora,  as  in  the  case  of  European  species  in 
California  and  in  other  parts  of  this  continent.  On  the 
other  hand,  while  a  species  so  transferred  mav  be  able  to 
live  in  the  new  surroundings  it  may  develop  differently  from 
its  habit  in  its  native  country.    Again,  some  species  have 


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24    Characteristics,  Structure,  Life  of  Trees 


such  a  wide  range  of  distribution,  through  such  a  variety  of 
climates,  that  the  success  depends  upon  the  choice  of  the 
locality  from  which  the  plant  has  been  derived  or  from  which 
the  seed  has  been  secured,  for  the  seed  preserves  all  the 
characteristics  of  its  mother  plant.  A  case  in  point  is  the 
Douglas  Fir,  ranging  from  British  Columbia  to  New  Mex- 
ico. Plants  of  this  species,  when  brought  from  the  humid, 
mild  Pacific  Coast  do  not  thrive  in  the  drier,  severer  climate 
of  the  Eastern  States;  but  if  grown  from  seed  collected  in 
the  dry  Rockies,  they  will  succeed. 

It  must  also  be  kept  in  mind  that  there  is  considerable 
variation  of  climate  experienced  locally  within  narrow 
limits,  as  for  instance,  in  going  from  the  foot  to  the  top  of  a 
mountain,  or  with  change  of  aspect,  and  with  different 
exj)osure  to  winds.  Hence  the  tree  in  one  })lace  may  fmd 
satisfactory  environment,  when  in  close  neighborhood, 
but  in  a  different  situation,  it  may  not:  the  south  side  of  a 
town  is  warmer,  the  northwest  colder,  but  healthier,  the 
southeast  most  equable,  and  so  on. 

\\hile,  therefore,  the  fact  that  different  species  of  trees 
are  by  nature  adapted  to  certain  climatic  conditions  must 
influence  the  choice  of  trees  for  ])lanting  in  a  given  locaHty, 
and  while  the  natural  adaptation  of  sjiecies  to  dee]j  or 
shallow,  wet  or  dry  soils  is  also  a  matter  to  be  considered  in 
the  selection  of  plant  material,  we  know  that  soils  at  least 
can  be  adapted  to  support  any  tree  species  and  also  that  the 
light  conditions  can,  to  some  extent,  be  made  favorable  to 
the  needs  of  the  species  adapted  to  the  climate. 

There  is  one  condition  of  soil  which  is  most  favorable 
to  all  tree  sy)ecics,  namely,  a  dee)),  moderately  loose, 
.sandy  loam,  which  permits  satisfactory  aeration  and  fur- 
nishes an  even  water  supply.  When  wc  sj)eak  of  trees 
adaptc!  to  other,  drier  or  wetter,  more  compact  or  looser, 


Ecological  Poiiits 


25 


soils,  we  mean  that  they  can  still  prosper  under  less  favor- 
able conditions,  if  necessary;  yet  they  would  do  best  on  the 
soil   as  described,   which   is,   therefore,   the  nurseryman's 

choice. 

As  regards  light  supply  to  the  foliage,  we  have,  of  course, 
no  means  of  increasing  or  modif\ing  it  in  general,  yet  in 
group  planting,  park  planting,  street  planting,  and  even  in 
pruning,  the  knowledge  that  different  species  require  differ- 
ent light  intensity  for  their  best  development  is  essential; 
for  here  proper  adaptation  to  light  conditions,  and  artificial 
changes  in  light  conditions  can  be  practised.  All  trees 
thrive  ultimately  best  in  full  enjoyment  of  light  and  then 
develop  their  characteristic  form,  as  we  see  it  in  single  trees 
on  the  lawn;  but,  if  placed  in  close  neighborhood  of  each 
other,  the  fact  will  soon  appear  that  one  species  is  "stronger" 
than  another;  that  means  the  one  spreads  its  branches  and 
kills  out  those  of  its  neighbor  by  its  shade. 

In  other  words,  the  foliage  of  one  species  requires  more 
light  to  perform  its  work  than  that  of  another.  This  fact 
is  exhibited  in  the  individual  tree  itself.  The  interior  of 
the  crown  in  those  which  need  much  light,  like  the  birch  or 
aspen,  thins  out,  is  empty  of  foliage,  because  of  the  shade 
which  the  exterior  exercises;  it  loses  its  lower  branches 
sooner  on  account  of  the  shading  by  the  upper,  or  else  the 
lower  reach  out  farther  to  escape  suppression.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  tolerant  or  shade-enduring  kinds,  like  beech 
and  sugar  maple,  are  characterized  by  compact  and  dense 
crowns:  their  foliage  even  in  the  dark  interior  of  the  crown 
can  perform  its  office.  And  so  a  relative  scale  can  be  made 
with  reference  to  light  requirements  from  the  most  light- 
needing  to  the  most  shade-enduring.  Birch,  aspen,  willow, 
poplar,  and  pine  are  examples  of  those  more  sensitive  to 
the  withdrawal  of  light;  beech,  sugar  maple,  holly,  spruce, 


fr 


i 


'fi 


i 


26     Characteristics,  Structure,  Life  of  Trees 

fir,  and  hemlock  are  examples  of  those  which  can  endure 
considerable  shade. 

The  practical  importance  of  this  fact  is  exemplified  in 
almost  every  park  or  yard  where  groups  are  planted,  either 
by  the  failure  of  the  designer  to  group  trees  with  reference 
to  their  characteristics,  or  by  failure  of  the  manager  to  cor- 
rect in  time  such  changes  of  relationship,  and  by  allowing 
the  "stronger"  to  damage  or  kill  out  the  "weaker." 

The  knowledge  that  this  strength  or  weakness  is  merely 
in  the  light  requirements  can  be  used,  first,  in  restraining 
the  stronger  by  proper  pruning,  if  the  two  are  to  be  kept 
together;  second,  if  it  becomes  necessary  to  plant  between 
existing  groups,  in  choosing  a  species  capable  of  bearing  the 
shade  of  its  neighbors;  and  finally,  in  pruning  individuals 
of  the  light-needing  kind  so  as  to  give  more  light  to  the 
interior  of  the  crown,  making  it  fuller  and  more  compact 
by  the  development  of  dormant  buds. 

Recuperative  Capacity.  There  is  one  other  feature  in 
the  economy  of  the  tree,  important  to  the  tree-warden,  by 
which  it  differs  from  the  animal  household  (with  exceptions), 
namely,  its  ability  to  replace  lost  parts.  This  is  due  to  the 
fact  that  it  produces  and  keeps  alive  many  more  buds  or 
growing  points  than  it  can  develop  in  a  season.  As  we 
have  seen,  only  a  few  of  the  many  buds  formed  each  season 
gro.v  into  shoots  and  make  leaves;  the  majority  die,  are 
killed  by  insects,  or  dry  out,  while  a  number  remain  living 
but  undeveloped,  keeping  dormant  until  needed. 

Let  a  tree  be  defoliated  again  and  again  by  insects  in  a 
single  season  and  the  dormant  buds  will  replace  the  lost 
foliage  as  long  as  there  are  stored  food  materials  at  hand  to 
feed  tli^m;  let  a  twig  or  branch  be  cut  off,  and  several  dor- 
mant buds  near  the  cut  base  will  vie  with  each  other  to 
replace  it;  cut  off  the  whole  tree  and  with  most  deciduous- 


«k  ■'^ 


Recuperative  Capacity 


27 


leaved  trees  the  stump,  if  not  too  old,  will  have  dormant 
buds  still  alive  below  the  bark  to  force  themselves  through 
and  make  sprouts  to  replace  the  lost  bole;  or  else  the  cam- 
bium layer  may  form  new,  so-called  adventitious  buds  for 
the  same  purpose. 

Lost  roots  too  can  be  replaced,  if  conditions  are  favorable, 
through  adventitious  buds,  a  fact  of  importance  in  trans- 
planting trees,  when  usually  a  part  of  the  root  system  can- 
not be  taken  up,  and  must  be  replaced  by  the  tree  in  its 

new  position. 

Upon  this  observa  -  the  replacement  of  lost  parts  the 
practice  of  pruning  is  ^ased:  the  tree  pruner,  by  lopping  off 
branches  and  thereby  changing  conditions  of  nutrition, 
produces  at  will  new  branches,  and  influences  direction, 
character,  and  amount  of  development. 

Tree  surgery  becomes,  therefore,  next  to  securing  favor- 
able soil  conditions,  the  most  important  factor  in  the  care 
of  trees,  for  it  enables  us  to  remove  diseased,  malformed, 
undesirable  parts  without  fear  of  harm  to  remaining  por- 
tions and  with  the  possibility  of  restoring  to  symmetry  and 
vigor  a  dilapidated  and  sickly  tree  ruin. 

With  old  age,  to  be  sure,  this  capacity  for  leplacement 
may  be  lost  in  the  older  parts,  and  it  must  also  be  kept  in 
mind  that  different  species  are  more  or  less  ■  igorous  in 
developing  dormant  buds. 

The  essential  points,  then,  of  tree  life  to  be  kr\t  in  view 
in  the  care  of  trees  are:  — 

1.  The  lining  portion  of  the  tree  is  found  in  the  cam- 
bium layer  directly  under  the  bark  and  in  the  tips  of  branches 

(buds)  and  roots. 

2.  Root  tips  &nc  foliage  are  in  direct  communication 
with  each  other  and  interdependent,  relying  on  each  other 
for  food. 


w^Kfps^imrmai^iim 


'    '■ 


28     Characteristics,  Structure,  Life  of  Trees 

3.  Water,  minerals,  and  air  in  sufTicicnt  quantity  at  the 
roots  are  the  principal  needs  of  trees,  and  especially  the 
aeration  of  the  roots  is  of  importance,  while  light  in  varying 
amounts  is  required  hy  the  foliage  for  proper  function. 

4.  Trees  have  the  capacity  of  replacing  lost  parts. 


i 


m^',.:.m 


CHAPTER  III 

DISEASE   AND   DEATH   OF  TREES- GENERALI- 
TIES 

OR  normal  development  trees  require,  as  we  h^ive 
seen,  light,  heat,  water,  air,  and  nutritive  ele- 
ments in  certain  amounts.  If  any  of  these 
comUtions  or  elements  are  temporarily  deficient 
(or  sometimes  when  in  excess)  the  normal  functions  are 
interfered  witli,  and  tlic  tree  may  be  ailing,  although  not 
necessarily  sick,  for  it  may  recover  its  normal  condition  as 
soon  as  the  deficiency  is  corrected. 

We  speak  of  disease  only  when  live  parts  fail  to  perform 
their  normal  functions  and  begin  to  die  before  their  time, 
that  is  to  say,  when  buds,  rootlets,  or  cambium  die  at  any 
time,  and  leaves  change  color,  become  dry,  and  fall  before 
the  end  of  the  season. 

Since,  as  we  have  seen,  the  living  parts  of  the  tree  lying 
on  its  perii)hcry  rejuvenate  ^hemsclvcs  every  year  by  the 
formation  of  new  shoots,  buds,  cambium  and  rootlets,  there 
can  be  actually  no  natural  death  from  old  age  in  the  same 
sense  as  in  animals.  Even  death  from  internal  causes  as  a 
direct  result  of  disea.i ,  at  least  sudden  death,  is  rare. 

Trees  die  mostly  as  a  result  of  unfavorable  external  con- 
ditions, which  interfere  witli  their  nutrition,  and  which  are 
generally  capable  of  control.  As  a  rule,  they  succumb  so 
gradually  that  tlicy  actually  die  by  inches;  it  may  take  many 
years  before  all  life  is  gone,  and  hence  there  is  time  for 
recuperative  measures. 

89 


^2-,  'PiT:  r5%^ri»iT»«6raamm;' 


tWTjf i;;;..-T(-. «»  rCf«ira  -Jir 


» \ 


i 


30    Disease  and  Death  of  Trees  —  Generalities 

Often  it  is  dilTicult  even  for  the  expert  to  determine  the 
exact  cause  of  final  death.  The  cause  frequently  lies  hid- 
den under  ground,  or  is  only  to  be  discovered  in  a  compli- 
cation of  various  conditions,  operative  at  different  times. 

Finally,  however,  it  is  mostly  interference  with  normal 
nutrition  and  csi)ecially  deficiency  in  water-supply  that  is 
the  uhvmate  cause  of  death. 

Old  Age.  Since  the  truly  living  portion  of  the  tree  is 
annually  renewed,  it  follows  that  when  we  speak  of  the 
length  of  the  natural  life  of  trees,  we  can  mean  only  that 
period  of  time  during  which  the  tree  without  human  aid 
may,  as  a  rule,  .'■uccessfully  resist  unfavorable  external  influ- 
ences of  soil,  climate,  or  attacks  of  parasites,  and  may  repair 
mechanical  injuries. 

Although  we  do  not  know  in  trees  the  decline  which 
characterizes  the  old  age  of  animals,  yet  we  find  that,  as  in 
animals,  extreme  youth  as  well  as  extreme  old  age  predis- 
poses the  tree  to  diseases,  and  that  serious  consequences 
and  fatal  results  arc  more  a[)t  to  follow  the  attacks  of 
enemies  in  the  younger  and  in  the  older  stages  than  in  middle 

life. 

One  reason  for  the  greater  danger  to  ok!  trees  seems  to 
be  in  their  mode  of  growth.  Since  trees  lengthen  their 
shoots  as  well  as  tlicir  roots  by  additions,  the  distance 
betAveen  the  jilace  of  supi)ly  and  of  consumption  of  water 
constantly  increases.  Finally  the  forces  at  work  can  not 
readily  pumi)  the  water  against  gravity  and  friction  from 
the  ever  farther  removed  root  tips  to  the  utmost  twigs  in 
suffident  quantity  to  satisfy  the  demands  of  a  drouthy 
season.  The  twigs  die  back  again  and  again,  ind  thus  a 
limit  to  height  growth  is  set.  At  leas*  this  is  the  theory  of 
the  writer,  and  no  better  one  has  as  yet  been  presented. 

But  there  is  also  opportunity  given  for  fungi  to  enter 


Old  Age 


31 


through  the  dead  twigs  as  well  as  through  the  larger  branches, 
broken  off  by  the  winds;  the  danger  of  damage  from  wind, 
snow,  and  ice  pressure  increasing  with  the  growth  in  length 
which  adds  to  the  leverage.     Rot,  riddling  the  bole  (which 
is  really  dead  matter)  and  eating  out  the  heart  of  the  giant, 
does  not  really  kill,  but  after  years  of  work  the  stability  of 
the  bole  is  undermined  and  eventually  the  tree  succumbs 
to  a  windstorm;  broken,  it  may  be,  in  full  leaf  and,  as  far  as 
the  living  parts  arc  concerned,  in  full  health.     Just  as  wild 
animals  are  said  to  die  mostly  from  violence,  so  trees  in 
nature  break  down  under  the  violence  of  windstorms  rather 
more  often  than  they  succumb  to  natural  death  or  disease. 

When  this  time  of  insufficiency  of  water-supply  and  hence 
endangered  old  age  will  arrive,  depends  on  a  variety  of  con- 
ditions. Difference  in  wood  structure  and  hence  in  conduc- 
tivity for  water  may  make  long-lived  and  short-lived  species; 
deep  soil  and  ready  water-supply  for  the  roots  and  favorable 
climatic  conditions,  increase  height  growth,  and  may  also 
possibly  lengthen,  or,  as  may  be,  shorten  the  life  of  the 
individual. 

Again,  some  species,  or  some  varieties  or  even  some 
individuals  of  a  given  species  may  be  found  to  resist  damage 
more  leadily  than  others,  or  else  be  more  predisposed  and 
liable  to  disease.  Some  are  more  adaptive  to  a  change  in 
the  environment,  while  others  quickly  resent  such  changes, 
especially  as  regards  water-supply  at  the  roots  or  transpira- 
tion at  the  foliage. 

Diseases  in  trees  are  usually  more  or  less  localized,  spread- 
ing gradually,  and  in  the  absence  of  a  nervous  system,  sec- 
ondary complications  in  other  organs,  as  they  occur  in  the 
animal  body,  are  not  generally  observable.  One  portion 
of  the  tree  may  remain  perfectly  normal  and  healthy  while 
another  portion  may  be  diseased  or  even  dead. 


,fi 


32     Disease  and  Death  of  Trees  —  Generalities 

Nevertheless,  since  different  parts  are  interdependent 
for  their  nutrition,  any  interference  in  feeding  arrangements 
will  be  more  or  less  felt,  at  least  in  all  growing  parts  which 
organically  belong  together.  It  is,  therefore,  usually,  one 
side  of  the  crown,  in  sympathy  with  the  same  side  of  the  root 
system,  which  is  diseased  or  dead,  while  the  other  side  may 
remain  alive  and  even  vigorous. 

This  fact,  together  with  the  ability  of  trees  to  replace  lost 
parts,  makes  it  possible  to  resuscitate  and  restore  quite 
dilapidated  specimens  by  surgery  and  proper  treatment, 
and  to  prolong  their  life  almost  indefinitely. 

General  Causes  of  Disease.  There  are  two  general  causes 
of  disease,  namely,  unfavorable  environment  and- parasitic 
organisms  (which,  however,  should  really  be  considered  a 
part  of  the  environment).  Under  the  influence  of  these 
two  we  may  group  for  diagnosis  and  treatment  four  classes 
of  troubles  to  which  trees  a'-e  exposed,  namely:  physiolog- 
ical diseases  which  are  produced  by  generally  unfavorable 
conditions  of  growth  in  atmosphere,  climate,  or  season,  and 
soil;  mechanical  injuries,  which  destroy  living  parts  or  else 
weaken  the  dead  wood  of  the  body;  attacks  of  fungi  and 
other  plants;  and  attacks  of  insects. 

Usually  se\eral  of  these  causes  work  together  or  are  even 
interdependent,  and  it  is  not  always  easy  to  tell  which  is  the 
primary,  which  the  secondary,  cause  of  the  diseased  or  abnor- 
mal condition.  This  difficulty  of  diagnosis  is  especially 
experienced  when  there  are  no  visible  signs  of  insect  or  fungus 
pests  present  and  when  the  trouble  seems  not  localized  but 
exhibits  itself  in  general  debility  or  sickly  appearance. 

Fungus  attacks  are  usually  secondary  results  of  mechan- 
ical injuries  and  insect  pests  become  in  most  cases  fatal 
only  when  other  debilitating  causes  are  at  work  simulta- 
neously. 


General  Causes  of  Disease 


33 


Shade  trees  in  city  streets  are  especially  subject  to  many 
adverse  conditions,  which  make  the  attack  of  fungi  and 
insects  much  more  dangerous  than  it  would  be  in  the  virgin 
forest.     Injuries    from    gnawing    horses,    abrasions    from 
passing  vehicles  and  other  agencies  give  entrance  to  fungi, 
reduce  the  feeding  area  and  the  vigor  of  the  tree;  pavements 
and  macadamized  roads  reduce   th-  water-supply  and  the 
supply  of  air  to  the  roots;  excavations  for  buildings,  sewers, 
water-,  gas-,  and  stcam-[)ipes  destroy  parts  of  the  root  system; 
gradings  do  the  same,  and  earth  fillings  change  the  water 
and  air  supply;  gas  leakage  at  the  root  and  other  obnoxious 
gases  at  the  foliage  interfere  with  the  health  and   vigor; 
inattention  to  the  wound-  and  broken  limbs  invite  fungus 
attacks;  and  electric  wires  introduce  the  danger  of  electric 
discharges.    All  these  untoward  conditions  of  the  en\iron- 
ment  together  with  the  mechanical  injuries,  if  not  fatal  in 
themselves,  tend  to  reduce  the  vigor  of  the  tree  and  make 
it  more  susceptible  to  the  attacks  of  parasites. 

The  first  concern  of  the  tree  doctor,  therefore,  is  to  secure 
a  favorable  envirorixnent,  —  sanitary  surroundings  for  his 
charges,  which  will  keep  them  in  vigorous  condition  and 
enable  them  to  fight  off  their  enemies  in  the  plant  and  animal 
world.    The  conditions  in  the  atmosphere  are  only  very 
partially  controllable;  drouthy  and  wet  seasons  and  the  ills  r  f 
frost  and  lightning  have  to  be  endured  without  much,  if  any, 
chance  of  counteracting  their  unfavorable  influences.     But 
the  medium  in  which  the  roots  perform  their  function,  the 
soil,  is  much  more  readily  influenced,  and  here,  therefore, 
lies  the  main  activity  for  securing  favorable  conditions.    As 
we  shall  see  more  fully  later,  the  regulation  of  the  water- 
-supply to  the  roots  and  a  sufficiency  of  air  or  oxygen  for 
their  respiration,   and,   to  a  minor  degree,  a  satisfactory 

amount  of   available  mineral  material  are  the   means   of 


[ 


■SSSSHSSMSR^BBP 


I 
i  ■* 


34     Disease  and  Death  of  Trees  —  Generalities 

keeping  trees  in  vigorous  constitution  and  of  avoiding  physio- 
logical diseases. 

Not  only  are  certain  species  adapted  to  certain  climatic 
conditions  and  hence  may  not  be  transferred  into  a  different 
locality  with  assurance  of  success,  but  even  the  individuals 
of  the  same  species  are  ;  oted  to  the  special  features  of 
their  nearer  surroundings  ui  local  climate  as  well  as  of  soil, 
and  resent  change,  or  at  least  must  re-adapt  themselves  if 
moved  into  new  surroundings.  To  some  extent,  even  the  seed 
itself  inherits  this  adaptation;  hence  the  young  plants  of  Pacific 
Coast  conifers,  grown  from  seed  derived  from  the  mild,  moist 
climate  of  their  habitat,  may  suffer  from  frost  and  drouth  in  the 
Eastern  States,  while  plants  of  the  same  species,  derived  from 
the  rigorous,  dry,  alpine  climate  of  Colorado,  will  be  hardy. 

In  transplanted  trees  this  difference  in  derivation  of  the 
plants  and  the  difficulty  of  adaptation  may  sometimes 
account  for  their  ailing  condition,  and  may  result  in  their 
death. 

The  seasons  will  naturally  influence  the  condition  and 
disposition  to  disease  of  the  tree:  a  period  of  drouth,  for 
instance,  may  kill  feeding  roots,  leaves  and  branches,  and 
at  the  same  time  open  the  door  for  fungi  to  enter;  a  period 
of  wet,  rainy  and  cloudy  weather  may  have  the  same  effect, 
by  depriving  roots  and  leaves  of  their  respiration;  a  severe 
cold  spell  in  the  spring  may  kill  foliage  and  twigs,  and  espe- 
cially "kill  back"  immature  young  wood  of  the  previous 
season,  such  as  forms  when  a  moist  fall  follows  a  dry  sum- 
mer. Attacks  of  fungi  may  or  may  not  be  of  moment  accord- 
ing to  the  season  and  the  condition  iiT  which  the  tree  is 
found  by  these  parasites. 

Mechanical  injuries,  by  which  the  truly  living  parts  are 
exposed  to  the  air,  are  perhaps  the  most  prolific  cause  of 
trouble  and  disease. 


1 


. 


1-IG. 

a.  —  A    "sun-sialded "    silver   maple    still 
alive,  giving  chance  for  fungus  to  enter. 


35 


b.  —  The  bark  torn  olT  from  one- 
half  of  the  bole.  Immediate 
alien tioti  by  tree  wax  and 
wrapping  has  kept  the  tree 
in  full  growth. 


36     Disease  and  Death  of  Trees  —  Generalities 

A  tough  skin  or  epidermis  protects  the  leaves  and  young 
shoots,  and  a  corky  bark  the  living  i)ortion  of  the  older 
parts  of  the  tree,  and  i)revcnt.«  or  at  least  impedes,  access 
of  insects  and  fun^'i  to  the  tender  living  tissues.  But  there 
are  innumerable  ()i)i)ortunitics  of  breaking  through  this 
protective  cover  and  exposing  the  delicate  tissues  below. 
Minute  punctures  arc  made  by  insects;  hailstones  tear  off 
portions  of  leaves,  pnxluce  contusions  on  the  young  twigs 
and  lacerate  the  bark;  windstorms  tear  off  foliage  and 
twigs  and  break  branches:  frost  and  sun-scald  split  and 
kill  portions  of  the  bark,  and  lightning  may  rend  the  bole 
to  the  ver>-  heart.  In  addition,  carelesj,  man  and  gnawing 
animals  inflict  wounds,  small  or  large. 

The  result  is,  first  of  all,  an  interference  with  the  normal 
functions  of  the  tree:  certain  areas  of  conducting  tissue  or, 
in  the  leaves,  of  assimilating  tissue  are  destroyed,  and  by  so 
much  the  equilibrium  of  the  whole  system  is  disturbed  in 
its  nutrition ;  and  secondly,  a  way  is  opened  for  fungi  to  attack 
the  living  or  supporting  tissue. 

The  recuperative  jxiwer  of  trees  is  so  great  that  almost 
any  wound,  if  properly  assisted,  can  be  healed  by  the  pro- 
cess of  callusing,  described  on  pages  91  98.  AU  that  the  tree 
doctor  can  do,  or  needs  to  do,  in  most  cases,  is  to  see  that 
this  healing  process  is  performed  promptly  ar.d  without 
interference.  The  sooner  the  injury  is  looked  after  the 
better,  so  that  the  secondary  evils  of  fungus  infection  may 
be  prevented. 

Fungus  Diseases.  Any  portion  of  a  tree  which  has 
been  mechanically  injured,  so  as  to  expose  the  living 
tissues  of  the  wood,  is  subject  to  the  attacks  of  fungi, 
although  sometimes  attacks  may  occur  without  such  injury. 
There  \re  fungi  which  live  on  trees  as  saprophytes,  using 
the  tree  merely  as  a  location;  others  which  feed  on  the  tree, 


Fungus  Diseases 


37 


sapping  its  life,  —  true  parasites;  others  aRain  are  in  some 
stages   of   development  parasitic,  and  in  other  stages  only 

saprophytic. 

There  are  fungi  living  •»  leaves,  others  living  on  the  roots, 
others  on  the  bark,  and  again  others  living  on  the  wood  of 
the  tree,  pnxlucing  its  decomposition,  or  what  is  commonly 

known  as  rot. 

The  young  plants  or  seedlings  are  cxpose<l  to  a  large  num- 
ber of  fungus  enemies,  which  do  not  trouble  them  in  later  life, 
but  we  shall  here  only  discuss  those  occurring  in  older  trees. 
Of  the  many  interesting  phenomena  in  the  life  history  of 
the  fungi  one  of  the  most  important  is  tha'  -not  only 

pass,  like  the  insects,  through  dilTerent  pha.  .^  or  forms  of 
development,  but  in  these  dilTerent  phases  hve  on  dilTerent 
"hosts,"  as  the  plants  are  called  on  which  they  feed. 

The  well-known  rust  of  wheat  lives  in  one  phase  of  its 
development  in  the  ground,  as  many  others  do,  and  in  an- 
other on  the  barberry  bush;  .some  fungi,  active  on  the  juniper 
tree,  are  found  in  ditTerent  stages  of  development  on  apple 
and  other  trees.  A  rust  which  attacks  the  needles  of  pines 
is  dependent  for  its  development  on  ragweed  or  groundsel 
(Senecio).  Lately  a  new  pest  attacking  our  white  pine  has 
been  introduced  from  Germany,  and  this  passes  one  stage 
of  its  development  on  currant  bushes. 

The  presence  of  a  certain  plant  may,  therefore,  be  a  cause 
of  the  spread  of  the  disease  on  another,  and  the  removal  of 
the  host  plant  as  well  as  of  the  infected  trees  or  parts  of 
them  is  often  the  only  means  of  getting  rid  of  the  trouble. 
In  so  far  as  specitic  enemies  exist  on  given  species,  if  an 
epidemic  has  set  in,  it  may  become  practically  necessary  to 
replace  the  species  by  another  in  order  to  avoid  the  spread 
or  renewal  of  the  trouble. 

The  fungi  which  ;   lack  ihe  foliage  usually  destroy  only 


38     Disease  and  Death  of  Trees  —  Generalities 

portions  of  the  leaf  surface  and  thus  simply  reduce  the 
assimilating  area  and  lessen  the  feeding  capacity  of  the  tree; 
thereby  the  growth  of  the  tree  is  diminished  in  proportion  to 
t'le  leaf  area  destroyed.  Since  the  leaves  fall  and  are 
renewed  the  next  season,  the  trouble  can  be  continued  only 
by  a  new  infection ;  in  other  words,  only  one  season's  growth 
and  function  is  involved. 

There  are,  however,  a  few  fungi  which  not  only  reduce 
the  assimilating  leaf  area  but  even  cause  the  jjremature 
fall  of  the  entire  leaves,  and  these  fungi  are,  of  course,  the 
more  injurious. 

The  most  common  leaf  fungi  are  those  producing  the  spot 
diseases,  the  foliage  being  covered  by  spots  varying  in  color, 
size,  and  shape,  which  mark  the  destroyed  tissue.  Some- 
times the  destroyed  tissue  dries  out,  becomes  brown,  and 
breaks  out  under  action  of  rain  and  wind,  the  leaves  remain- 
ing perforated  as  by  shot. 

Another  class  of  fungi  produce  the  so-called  powdery  and 
other  mildeivs,  recognized  by  a  whitish  or  else  black  spider- 
web-like  growth  on  the  surface  (the  fruit-bodies),  which 
becomes  powdery. 

While  the  sjxjt  diseases  and  mildews  affect  mainly  the 
broad-leaved  trees  —  maples,  chestnuts,  oaks,  and  many 
others  —  the  rusts,  characterized  by  collections  of  yellowish 
red,  somewhat  powdery  fruit  bodies  are  more  frequent  on 
conifers.  These  attack  also  stems  and  branches,  causing 
peculiar  swellings  or  knots  and  bUster-like  patches. 

Here  also  belongs  the  disease  known  as  juniper  apple, 
which  appears  on  the  red  cedar  with  a  fruit  body  of  slimy 
or  gelatinous,  yellow  or  brown,  conical  masses. 

On  the  whole,  all  these  fungi  arc  of  minor  importance  and, 
if  the  trees  are  otherwise  kept  in  vigorous  condition,  their 
damage  is  in  most  cases  readily  repaired. 


MMii 


Fig  10  —a  cankerous  cherry  tree,  the  two  while  spots  on  the  wound  being 
fruit  bodies  of  the  fungus. 


39 


40    Disease  and  Death  of  Trees  —  Generalities 

The  "black"  fungi,  which  attack  the  bark,  find  entrance 
through  small  wounds  made  by  hailstones,  insects,  or  break- 
ages. Working  between  bark  and  wood  in  the  bast  or 
bark  portions  of  the  cambium  and  into  the  wood,  they 
destroy  living  tissue,  and,  if  the  injury  is  extensive  in  younger 
trees  and  twigs,  they  become  dried  out  and  killed. 

These  bark-fungi  are  found  especially  on  conifers,  pine, 
spruce,  fir,  etc.  Their  presen  .  is  usually  not  discovered 
until  a  number  of  pin-sized,  white,  black,  bright  red,  or 
yellowish  pustules  or  spots  —  the  fruit-bodies  of  the  fungus 
—  appear  on  the  outside  of  the  dead  bark. 

In  deciduous-leaved  trees  the  same  class  of  fungi  i)roduce 
malformations  known  as  canker.  On  small  areas  of  irreg- 
ular shape  the  bark  is  killed,  and  in  the  attempt  to  heal  the 
damage  by  callusing  each  season,  and  at  the  same  time  in 
the  continuance  from  year  to  year  of  the  fungus  growth,  all 
kinds  of  curious  shapes  of  the  wound  are  produced.  Small 
fruit-bodies,  white  with  minute  red  sjxjts,  apj)earing  on  the 
dead  bark  of  the  margin  of  the  wound  are  the  indications 
of  the  fungus  causing  these  malformations. 

Similar  to  this  disease  is  the  black-knot  of  the  plum  and 
cherry  trees,  a  fungus  producing  swellings  of  irregular 
shape. 

By  reducing  the  water-supply,  especially  in  dry  years, 
these  bark-infesting  fungi  cause  sometimes  the  partial  or 
entire  death  of  twigs  and  branches. 

Various  fungi  working  on  young  trees  and  on  foliage  give 
rise  to  swellings  of  the  leaves  like  boils,  and  to  the  curious 
deformations  known  as  "witch's  broom."  Timely  removal 
of  these  arrests  the  progress  of  the  disease. 

The  condition  and  age  of  the  tree  determine,  to  a  large 
extent,  how  far  these  fungus  attacks  may  be  detrimental. 

The  rot  fungi,  which  produce  the  decay  of  wood,  are  the 


HHliiai 


I 


Fungus  Diseases 


41 


most  common  and  the  most  insidious,  since  their  mycehum 
penetrates  deeply  into  the  body  of  the  tree  out  of  reach. 
Since  the  trunk  of  the  tree,  the  wood,  is  mostly  dead  tissue, 


Fig   II.  -  Three  species  of  rot  fungi.      WTien  these  frui  bodies  appear  at 

The  base  or  on  the  wounds  of  a  tree,  the  interior  is  usually  all  decayed,  and 

help  comes  too  late,     (.\fter  Murrill,  from  Cornell  University  Bulletin,  No. 

205-) 

they  do  not  impair  to  any  great  extent  the  living  portion. 
Yet  they  are  not  mere  saprophytes,  for  they  reaUy  feed  on 
the  wood,  absorbing  ceU-walls  and  ceU  contents,  and  to 
some  extent  impair  its  functions  in  the  conduction  of  water. 
But  their  main  damage  lies  in  destroying  the  firmness  of 


42     Disease  and  Death  of  Trees  —  Generalities 


the  wood  body.  While  the  tree  can  go  on  rotting  for  years, 
to  all  appearances  without  detriment,  its  stability  is  under- 
mined, and  finally  a  windstorm  may  lay  it  low  in  full  leaf 
and  otherwise  in  full  health. 

These  fungi  gain  entrance  to  the  wood  through  wounds 
made  by  Ircken  or  badly  pruned  branches,  by  broken  bark 
or  through  injured,  exposed  roots. 

On  the  ragged  surface  of  a  broken  branch  stump,  and 
even  on  a  well-pruned  but   unprotected  wound,  dust  and 

water  collect  and  form  a  seed  bed 
on  which  the  fungus  s[X)res  —  cor- 
responding to  the  seeds  of  other 
plants,  minute  or  microscopic, 
easily  scattered  by  the  winds  — 
can  locate  and  sprout.  These  grow 
into  the  wood  by  rootlike  hy- 
pha,  which  bore  through  and 
between  cell-walls,  branching  mul- 
tifariously and  forming  a  mass  of 
white  meshes  penetrating  the  wood 
in  all  directions  —  the  so-called 
mycelium.  This  draws  its  suste- 
..™^  „.    -....,  „, _.    nance  from    the   tree,   destroying 

living  spore  lubes;   ^  o'd    cell-walls  and  absorbing  cell  con- 
fined  up  sjjore   tunes;    /, 
fluted  upper  surface  of  the    tents.     As  a  consequcncc  the  wood 

fruiting  body  of  the  fungus,      .  •       ^u-inks   rrarks   turns  reddish 
which  gets  its  food  through    <^"^^'  sn^nKS,  cracKS,  lurns  reuuiMi 

a  great  number   of   fine   brown,  or  else  becomes  spongy  and 

threads  (the  mycelium),  its         ,,       .  ,        ,  .  rr.i  i       ■      i 

vegetative  tissue  penetrating   yellowish  white.      1  he  mechanu  ill 
the  wood  and  causing  its   destruction   proceeds    as   the   my- 

decay.        (Department    of  ' 

Agriculture,  Division  of  For-    CcHum  proceeds. 

estry  Bulletin,  No.  10.)  pj^^^^  sometimes  after  years, 

the   mycelium   forms    a    fruit-body  on  the  outside  of  the 
trc-e,  the  readily  recognized  toadstool   making  its  presence 


Fig.  12. — "Shelf"  fungus  on 
the  stem  of  a  pin°  a,  sound 
wood;  ft,  resinous  "light" 
wood;  c,  partly  decayed 
wood  or  punk;    d,  layer  of 


Fungus  Diseases 


43 


«' 


known  to  the  uninitiated  long  after  the  mischief  has  been 
done. 

On  the  roots,  besides  the  rot  fungi,  there  are  found  others 
which  attack  the  living  parts  and  hence  become  directly  a 
damage  to  the  life  function  of  the  tree. 

While  here  too,  as  a  rule,  an  injury  or  weakened  condition 
invites  the  fungus  attack,  there  are  fungi  which  appear  to 
attack  perfectly  heaUhy  and  uninjured  roots.  Thus  the 
southern  root  rot  which  infests  a  large  number  of  tree  species, 
kills  the  roots  so  extensively  as  to  produce  a  sudden  wilting 
of  the  leaves  and  subsequent  det-lh  of  the  tree.  Poorly 
drained  and  poorly  aerated  soils  seem  to  favor  its  develop- 
ment. 

The  honey  mushroom  also  kills  young  trees  and  weakens 
or  stunts  the  growth  of  older  trees  which  finally,  if  a  dry, 
hot  season  occurs,  may  dry  up  for  lack  of  water-supply. 
Its  mycelium  grows  not  only  in,  but  alongside  the  roots 
through  the  ground,  within  a  few  inches  of  the  surface  and 
thus  spreads  from  tree  to  tree,  increasing  the  area  infested. 

Some  few  plants  other  than  fungi  may  be  found  as  para- 
sites on  branches  and  bole;  they  are  mischievous,  although 
rarely  of  importance  unless  ex'aordinarily  developed. 
Among  the^e  are  various  species  ot  mistletoe,  which  occa- 
sion objectionable  burl-like  malformations,  due  merely  to 
the  mechanical  obstructions  to  the  wood  growth  which  their 
roots,  imbedded  in  the  cambium  layer  of  the  host,  produce. 
The  dying  of  the  branch  above  this  burl  may  be  the  con- 
sequence. The  trouble  is  spread  by  the  seeds  of  the  mistle- 
toe, which  are  covered  with  a  sticky  substance  and  arc 
carried  by  birds  to  other  branches  and  trees;  hence  its  spread, 
at  least,  can  be  prevented  by  removing  the  affected  branches. 

In  addition  to  the  parasitic  fungi  z  d  other  parasitic 
plants,    there  will   be  found   on    all   trees   epiphytes,  i.e., 


wmm 


1^  i 


44    Disease  and  Death  of  Trees  —  Generalities 

plants  which  do  not  feed  on  the  host  plant,  but  use  it  simply 
as  support,  such  as  mosses  and  lichens,  orchids  and  various 
climbers,  like  the  Virginia  creeper.  As  a  rule,  these  are  of 
little  consequence;  yet  if  in  excess  may  become  troublesome. 

The  excessive  development  of  mosses  and  lichens  on  the 
bark  is  a  sign  either  of  a  very  humid  atmosphere,  of  very 
wet  soil,  or  of  very  slow  growth  of  the  tree.  In  the  latter 
case,  the  outer  bark  is  sloughed  off  very  slowly,  thus  giving 
time  for  the  epiphyte  to  develop.  Usually  there  is  no 
damage  to  be  anticipated  from  the  epiphytes  but,  if  exces- 
sively dense,  the  cover  of  lichen  and  moss  may  become 
injurious  by  closing  the  breathing  pores  of  the  bark,  and 
had  better  be  removed. 

Creepers  are  usually  harmless,  but  may  become  objection- 
able on  young  trees  and  young  parts,  like  wires  or  artificial 
ligatures,  if  the  pressure  with  which  they  resist  the  expansion 
of  the  body  of  the  host  plant  becomes  so  great  as  to  retard 
or  prevent  the  supply  of  formative  materials  to  th'  portions 
below  the  constricted  part.  In  such  cases  the  lower  portion 
will  be  retarded  in  its  diameter  growth. 

Insect  Damage.  A  host  of  insect;,  oelonging  to  the  ordeio 
of  beetles,  moths,  butterflies,  gall-flies,  saw-flies,  plant  and 
bark-lice,  are  parasitic  on  all  parts  of  trees,  feeding  on  leaves, 
tvvigs,  cambium,  roots,  and  wood. 

Sometimes  it  is  the  imago,  the  beetle,  thtt  does  the  mis- 
chief, but  mostly  it  is  the  larva,  the  grub  or  caterpillar, 
which  is  to  be  feared.  Some  live  und  feed  on  the  exterior 
of  the  plant,  especially  those  which  depredate  the  foliage, 
others  are  internal  feeders,  living  during  some  stage  of  their 
development  within  some  part  of  the  host  plant.  Such  are 
the  gall-insects  and  leaf-miners,  which  lay  their  eggs  in  the 
soft  tissues  of  leaves,  leaf-stalks,  or  fruit,  where  the  larva 
develops  and  feeds.     The  larvae  ot   the  bark-beetles  feed 


Insect  Damage 


43 


on  the  soft  cambium  layer  underneath  the  bark;  the  stem- 
borers  hollow  out  twigs  or  make  their  abode  in  the  trunks, 
feeding  on  the  wood  itself. 

Some  do  little  or  practically  no  damage;  indeed,  in  the 
majority  of  cases  only  when  an  extraordinary  development 
of  an  insect  pest  in  any  one  season  takes  place,  or  when 
repeated  invasions  have  to  b'^  endured,  or  when  other  acces- 
sory unfavorable  conditions  occur,  need  any  apprehension 
for  the  life  of  the  tree  be  felt.  Such  unusual  developments 
of  insect  pests  seem  to  take  place  periodically,  when,  due  to 
specially  favorable  seasons  or  otherwise,  the  pest  is  favored, 
while  natural  enemies  are  reduced  or  less  favored. 

The  leaf-eaters  of  certain  species  are  especially  liable  to 
this  periodic  excessive  multiplication. 

If  the  defoliation  is  only  partial  and  occurs  at  a  time  of 
the  year  when  the  foliage  can  still  be  replaced  by  the 
development  of  the  dormant  buds,  outside  of  the  temporary 
unsightliness,  only  a  reduction  in  the  season's  growth  is  the 
result.  But,  if  the  defoliation  is  comp'ete,  and,  as  happens 
with  some  species  of  leaf-eaters,  more  than  one  generation 
is  developed  in  a  season,  repeating  the  destruction  of  the 
foliage  as  new  leaves  are  formed  and  thereby  preventing 
the  assimilation  of  food  materials,  the  tree  may  be  weakened 
even  to  death.  At  least  a  repetition  of  the  defoliation  for 
two  or  possibly  three  seasons,  according  to  the  vigor  and  age 
of  the  tree,  will  be  fatal. 

The  new  foliage,  formed  in  the  same  season  after  the  first 
defoliation,  is  apt  to  be  smaller  in  size  or  abnormal  in  form 
and  thinner,  hence  less  elTective.  Sometimes,  however, 
when  a  large  number  of  buds  have  been  destroyed,  unusu- 
ally large  and  abnormally  formed  secondary  leaves  arise 
from  the  few  remaining  buds.  In  either  case  the  nutrition 
of  the  tree  is  interfered  with. 


46     Disease  and  Death  of  Trees  —  Generalities 

While  some  insects  are  general  feeders,  i.e.,  attacking  all 
kinds  or  at  least  a  number  of  tree  species,  insects,  even  more 
than  fungi,  are  partial  in  selecting  their  hosts,  i.e.,  given 
species  of  insects  attack  given  species  of  trees.  Besides, 
they  differ  much  more  in  their  life  habits  than  fungi,  hence 
they  may  not  be  dealt  with  as  a  whole,  Uke  the  fungi,  but 
it  becomes  more  needful  to  know  them  specifically  by  name, 
appearance,  and  habit,  with  their  life  history,  in  order  to 
apply  judiciously  measures  for  their  reduction.  Moreover, 
there  are  a  number  of  enemies  of  the  obnoxious  insects 
found  in  the  insect  world,  and  it  becomes  necessary  to  dis- 
tinguish between  friend  and  foe,  in  order  not  to  destroy  the 
natural  enemies  of  the  pest. 

We  can  here  refer  specifically  only  to  the  more  common 
pests  of  ornamental  and  shade  trees,  leaving  the  vast  num- 
ber of  minor  and  of  orchard  pests  to  be  studied  in  the  specific 
literature.  Fuller  descriptions  will  be  found  in  Chapter 
VI;  here  only  the  character  of  the  damage  in  general  is  to 
be  discussed. 

With  regard  to  the  manner  in  which  the  damage  is  inflicted, 
we  can  classify  the  injurious  insects  into  a  few  groups,  each 
group  containing  representatives  of  the  various  orders  into 
which  insects  are  scientifically  classified.  These  groups 
may  be  called  leaf-eaters,  leaf-miners,  leaf-rollers,  leaf- 
suckers,  gall-insects,  bark-lice,  bark-beetles  and  borers. 

The  character  of  the  damage  itself  may  be  threefold, 
namely,  destruction  of  substance,  occasioned  by  leaf-eaters, 
bark-beetles  or  borers;  loss  of  sap  occasioned  by  plant-lice; 
and  formation  of  abnormal  excrescences  or  galls,  to  which 
the  plant  is  stimulated  by  various  insects.  All  three  kinds 
of  damage  or  any  two  may  be  occasioned  by  the  same  pest. 

The  kaf-eaters  are  mostly  caterpillars  of  butterflies  and 
especially  of  moths,  which  in  feeding  on  the  foliage  generally 


Hiil 


Insect  Damage 


47 


destroy  the  entire  leaf.     But  the  larvie  of  beetles  also,  and 
some    of    the    beetles   themselves   are   destructive  in  this 

manner. 

The  leaf -miners,  which  skeletonize  leaves,  eating  only 
the  softer  portions  in  patches,  also  come  from  different  fam- 
ilies. Some  of  these,  like  the  elm-leaf  beetle  and  the  larch- 
miner,  make  such  extensive  inroads,  that  the  result  is  very 
much  like  the  eating  of  the  whole  leaf.  Others  make  only 
small,  blotch-like  mines  or  short  tracks  on  upper  or  lower, 
or  both  sides  of  the  leaves,  destroying  small  areas  of  the 
soft  tissuej.  These,  as  a  rule,  do  little  damage.  Neverthe- 
less it  is  wise  to  reduce  them  by  burning  up  the  fallen  leaves, 
in  which  they  usually  hibernate. 

Another  set,  the  leaf-rollers,  also  coming  from  different 
families,  roll  the  leaves  together  in  various  ways  to  make 
shelter  for  the  caterpillars,  folding  the  edges  and  sewing 
them  together  with  silken  threads,  or  spinning  them,  as  in 
the  case  of  needles  of  conifers,  into  a  web.  These  distor- 
tions and  occultations  of  the  foliage  would  generally  be  of 
little  consequence,  but  the  insect,  here  sheltered,  usually 
is  destructive  to  the  buds  and  young  shoots,  and,  if  the 
leaves  in  the  web  are  eaten,  as  is  done  by  some,  the  damage 
may  become  considerable. 

While  the  leaf  insects  so  far  mentioned  feed  on  the  foliage 
by  eating  it,  there  are  a  few,  like  the  plant-lice  and  leaf- 
hoppers,  which  suck  the  sap  by  piercing  the  succulent  leaves 
and  leaf  stems  or  even  twigs,  causing  the  leaves  to  crumple 
or  roll,  or  producing  gall-like  swellings.  Usually  these 
leaf-suckers  do  not  do  much  damage  unless  unusually  abun- 
dant. There  are,  however,  some  bark-lice  which  do  much 
more  damage  by  puncturing  the  bark  of  twigs. 

To  this  group  belong  also  various  scale-insects,  which, 
adhering  to  the  small  limbs,  sap  their  life  and  cause  them 


48     Disease  and  Death  of  Trees  —  Generalities 

to  dry  up,  and  even  large  branches  and  entire  trees  can  be 
kiUed  by  these  scale-insects  if  they  are  abundant. 

A  very  large  number  of  insects  coming  from  several  of 
the  various  orders,  inhabit  the  foliage  and  smaller  twigs  in 
their  egg  and  larval  stage  and  produce  what  is  known  as 
galls  peculiar  swellings,  tumors,  or  malformations,  often 
highly  colored.  Kspecially  the  family  of  gall-llies,  number- 
ing some  hundreds  of  species,  inhabit  largely  the  oaks, 
producing  all  sorts  of  leaf-gaUs.  vmong  these  are  the  galls  of 
commerce  from  which  ink  and  gallic  acid  are  manufacture^!. 
The  damage  is  too  small  to  deserve  much  attention,  but 
where  excessive,  the  leaves  should  be  gathered  while  green 
and  burned,  to  get  rid  of  the  deformation. 

These  sweUings  or  malformations  of  twigs,  buds  and  shoots 
are  often  accompanied  by  a  shortening  of  the  annual  growth 
and  a  crowding  of  the  foliage,  forming  what  is  known  on 
wiUows  as  the  "willow  rosette"  and  on  pines  or  on  spruces 
as  the  "pine-apple." 

The  saw-flies,  similar  ->  the  gall-flies,  lay  their  eggs  m 
the  tissues  of  the  leaf,  but  as  they  live  in  colonies  and  have 
often  two  broods  in  a  season  and  their  larva;  feed  voraciously, 
they  are  more  injurious  than  the  gall-flies  and  may,  as  in  the 
case  of  the  larch  and  the  pine  saw-flies,  cause  widespread 
havoc.    The  conifers  suffer  especially  from  these  pests. 

With  the  familv  of  beetles  known  as  weevils  we  come  to 
the  stem-boring  insects.  For,  although  some  feed  on  the 
foliage  and  puncture  the  bark,  their  worms  or  grubs  inhabit 
not  onlv  the  fruit  but  also  the  young  twigs;  the  beetle 
with  its  long  cylindrical  snout  perforating  the  bark  and 
depositing  an  egg  in  the  hole,  the  larva  developing  from  it, 
burrowing  beneath  the  bark,  loosening  it  from  the  wood  or 
boring  into  the  stem  and  deslro)  ing  the  wood. 

Bark-beetles,  the  "grubs"  of  which  live  under  the  bn^ 


Insect  Damage 


49 


e 
i 

o 
e 
it 

le 
d 

t, 
3r 


especiaUy  of  coniferous  trees,  and  feed  on  the  soft  cambium 
layer,  are  usuaUy  secondary  troubles,  after  the  vigor  of  the 
tree  has  been  undermined  by  defoliation,  by  fire,  or  by  other 
causes.  They  rarely  attack  vigorous  and  healthy  trees; 
sometimes,  however,  when  a  pest  is  excessively  abundant, 
heahhy  trees  mav  be  attacked  and  succumb,  especiaUy 
young  specimens.  Since  the  larva;  of  these  beetles  destroy 
the  cambium,  their  damage  becomes  easily  very  serious, 
leading  to  the  death  of  the  tree.  And  as  their  presence  is 
not  readily  detected  before  the  mischief  is  done  they  are 
most  difficult  to  deal  with.  » 

Not  less  '"nsidious  and  difficult  to  combat  are  the  wood- 
borers  and  wood-wasps  which  burrow  in  the  wood,  or  hollow 
out  the  pith  of  twigs.  Although  they  are  mostly  less  injuri- 
ous to  the  tree,  being  usuaUy  few  in  number  and  working 
as  they  do  in  dead  wood,  yet  when  they  attack  the  smaller 
branches  and  young  trees  they  may  cause  undesirable  loss. 
Even  in  the  bole  of  older  trees  they  may,  if  very  numerous, 
undermine  the  vitahty  of  the  tree  by  reducing  the  conducting 
tissue  so  as  to  eventually  cause  the  death  of  the  less  vigor- 
ous individuals.  Moreover,  these  boring  insects  may  pro- 
duce mechanical  injuries  which  furnish  an  entrance  for 
fungus  growth  and  thereby  lead  to  more  serious  trouble. 

The  roots  suffer  also  from  a  number  of  insects.  Some  of 
them  destroy  the  youngest  root  tips  mechanically,  as  is  done 
by  the  mole-cricket  and  the  larva  of  the  June  bug,  while  wire- 
worms  and  other  beetle  larvae,  and  a  few  caterpillars  and 
root-lice  Hving  underground,  feed  on  them,  and  others  again 
burrow  in  them.  The  damage  is  usually  of  moment  only 
in  young  trees  and  is,  of  course  to  be  found  in  the  loss  of 
feeding  apparatus. 

There  should  perhaps  licre  be  added,  since  the  question 
occasionally  arises,  a  few  remarks  on  "  how  to  kill  a  tree." 


I 


50     Disease  and  Dear    nf    Irtrs    -  ( ^t-ncralities 

It  is  easy  enoii^^li  to  i,'i't  rid  i  :in\  >  v  hy  catting  it,  or  by 
merely  girdling',  ami.  it  it  is  u  "s;ij)  votKr'  tree,  b}  sawing 
throuj^h  the  sap-w(KKi.  thereby  cutting  ofT  water-supply 
from  the  foliage  and  foo-l  -u})pl\  from  ^hc  roo'.  While 
this  works  positively  with  conifer^  and  many  broad  leaf 
trees,  there  are  some  of  the  latter,  which  have  such  vigorous 
sprouting  luibit  from  the  root  thai  .something  more  must 
be  done  to  kill  the  r(X)l -stmk.  Removal  i>,  >>(  course,  again 
the  most  elTeclive  but  expensive  melhixl.  With  >nme, 
cutting  through  the  root  strands  will  ex])editt  death;  but 
others  are  so  jjersisient  that  still  another  means  must  be 
added.  The  most  effective  of  these  and  least  destructive 
to  other  vegetation,  i>  the  thorough  drenclung  of  the  root- 
stock  with  kerosene  which  closes  the  })reathing  pores  and 
chokes  out  life. 


■  '.  J.W 


tmFm 


CH  \P    KR  I\' 


even  li   •  lesk 

1     -Uiily,  if 
in      the  foli 


'em 


-ses 
ree 

L  (;       le 


DI\r.N()S'\v;    OF    i)ISEASES 

irST  as  li.f  !  nysuian  finds  his  ^ri-'ati'st  ditTiculiy 
!  (Icterm.ii.aj^  the  cause  of  illness,  so  in.-  tr.  «• 
utctor,    ithough  knowing  the  disea.^      to  whii 
trees  nrt  liable  and  knowing  the  remedie     mii 
siiU  find  trouble  u.  dx..gnnsi!      the  true  cause  of  the  c 
abriormal  .  onditiun       Here        >  that  experience  and 
•nenl  come  in   y(     sometimes  c.cn  an  expert  remain 
•less,    >v  ^areful   examination,  in  ma 
viKjriencul  can  determine  what  ;   Is  ! 
thin    is  1  i     matter  in  any  livi       '■ 
.    iiv     'he  lir>l  indication,  and  i 
mu>t  readilv  ax         Ic  >vm!)toms  for  diagnosis. 

Hence  our  exan  mution   t)egins  with  the  foliage,  to  see 
hether  it   shows  any  divergence  from   norma'    conditions 
n  size,  quantity,  form,  or  color.     With   a  ■■         •)tion  of 
nat  the  normal  foliage  ouglit  to  be,  we  a.s  n  whether 

the  leaves  of  the  individual  under  examination  are  smaller 
than  usual,  or  thinner,  wheth.-r  the  foliage  as  a  whole  appears 
slim,  whether  the  leaves  are  wholly  or  partially  discolored, 
whether  they  are  mechanically  injured,  eaten,  crumpletl, 
or  otherwise  misshapen,  spotted,  wilted,  or  dead. 

If  no  local  cause,  as  from  fungi  or  insec  can  be  ascer- 
tained as  surely  respo.sible,  we  look  nex.  for  indications 
on  twigs,  branches  and  bole  as  accounting  for  sickly  appear- 
ance of  the  foliage  or  death  of  branclilets.     Mechanical 

S' 


52 


Diagnosing  of  Diseases 


Hi 


injuries  to  the  cambium  and  young  wood,  caused  by  insects 
or  other  agencies,  and  the  robbery  by  sucking  insects  like 
the  scale  and  bark-lice,  affect  the  feeding  processes  of  the 
tree  and  may  be  the  reason  for  the  abnormal  condition  of 
the  foliage. 

If  only  certain  portions  of  the  foliage  show  abnormality, 
it  is  almost  certain  that  a  localized  cause  will  be  found  such 
as  a  colony  of  insects,  a  partial  destruction  of  food-conduct- 
ing tissue,  a  particular  root  injury.  If,  on  the  other  hand, 
the  whole  crown  is  affected,  the  cause  must  be  more  general 
and  may  be  found  in  general  conditions  of  nutrition.  Then 
it  becomes  necessary  to  examine  the  soil,  to  see  whether  in 
any  way  conjectures  as  to  the  conditions  at  the  root  may 
be  formed,  accounting  for  the  indications  in  the  crown. 

Here,  in  the  root  region,  matters  become  more  compli- 
cated because  hidden  from  direct  observation,  and  yet  here 
lies  probably  the  most  fertile  source  of  trouble. 

As  so  often  in  an  old  man  head  and  feet  become  feeble 
simultaneously,  so  in  the  tree,  when  the  top  gives  out,  there 
is  usually  something  wrong  at  the  root,  and  that  means 
generally  at  the  ver\'  extremities,-  —  the  root-tips.  The  dis- 
tance from  root-tip  to  branch-tip,  from  pump  and  power 
plant  to  feeding  extremities,  increasing  continuously,  makes 
naturally  the  life  processes  more  and  more  difficult  to  per- 
form at  the  extremities,  and  if  any  other  cause  of  discomfort 
is  added,  the  result  may  be  fatal. 

As  on  the  leaves  and  bole,  so  on  the  roots,  there  are 
predatory  insects  and  fungi  active  and  the  roots  are  liable  to 
mechanical  injuries  with  the  same  results.  But,  in  addi- 
tion, there  are  essentia'  conditions  in  the  soil,  the  medium 
in  which  the  roots  live,  which  can  change  to  a  much  greater 
extent  than  can  those  of  the  air,  the  medium  of  the  upper 
portions  of  the  tree.     As  we  have  already  seen,  these  changes 


r 


Insect  Damage 


53 


involve  the  water-supply,  the  supply  of  oxygen,  and  the 
supply  of  nutritive  elements. 

The  most  common  symptom  of  unfavorable  soil  condi- 
tions is  found  in  the  paling  or  etiolation  of  the  leaves  which 
b'ome  prematurely  yellow,  wilting  and  faUmg  before  the 
end  of  the  season;  while  in  other  cases  the  eaves  and  buds 
are  reduced  in  size.    Branch-tips,  especially  of  horizon  a 
branches,  are  kiUed  back,  and  the  top  of  the  crown  dries 
and  dies  giving  rise  to  the  so-called  staghead;  or  else  water- 
:;lt  slende?,  long,  wisp-iike  shoots  out  of  the  regular 
order,  are  formed.    Excessive  growth  of  moss  and  lichen 
may  also  be  an  accompanying  symptom. 

if  the  tree  has  been  vigorous  before,  and  has  only  recently 
shown   signs  of  weakness,   we  must   note  especiaUy   any 
changes  lately  made   in  the   soil  conditions,  which  may 
account  for  change  in  its  vigor;  such  as  the  cutting  down 
or  filling  up  of  ground,  making  ditches,  laying  gas-pipes, 
draining  or  flooding,  cultivating  or  sodding,  performances 
which  are  apt  to  interfere  with  the  root  system,  altenng  its 
environment,  and  hence  the  amount  of  active  root  growth. 
If  none  of  these  investigations  give  a  clue,  we  must  then 
inquire  into  the  weather  conaitions  and  the  history  of  the 
preceding  two,  three,  or  four  seasons,  as  weU  as  into  sur- 
roundings generaUy,  and  we  must  ascertain  what  has  been 
the  previous  treatment  of  the  patient. 

Thus  circumspect  investigation  and  observation  and 
historical  evidence  must  be  brought  together  to  diagnose 
the  more  complicated  cases,  whUe  in  other  cases  the  initiated 
may  be  able  at  once  to  determine  the  cause  ot  ihe  abnormal 
condition.  The  novice  wiU  have  to  examine  with  more  care, 
especially  to  avcid  the  mistake  of  recognizing  as  the  pri- 
mary cause  what  is  only  secondary. 

Insect  Damage.    The  most  obvious  damage  is  that  done 


54 


Diagnosing  of  Diseases 


i! 


iU 


by  the  leaf-eating  insects.  Thv  only  trouble  is,  that  when 
the  damage  has  become  apparent,  it  is  either  too  late,  or 
very  difficult,  for  that  season  at  least,  to  combat  them. 
Since  in  these  cases  preventive  measures  alone  are  effica- 
cious, it  is  desirable  to  recure,  in  due  time,  evidence  of  the 
probable  appearance  of  large  numbers  of  these  pests,  or 
else,  as  a  matter  of  precaution,  to  apj)ly  jjrc\enti\e  measures 
(spraying  j>oisons)  even  without  that  evidence. 

In  the  German  forest  administrations,  trial  collections 
of  the  hibernating  insects  are  made  every  spring  to  deter- 
mine whether  necessity  for  preventive  measures  exists. 
Cocoons,  caterpillars,  and  beetles  are  collected  from  under 
the  bark  of  stems  and  from  under  the  moss  and  rubbish  at 
the  foot  of  the  trees,  and  an  estimate  of  their  probable 
number  is  made. 

In  parks,  similar  precautions  can  be  practised  to  advan- 
tage, and  the  collection,  instead  of  being  a  trial  one,  may  be 
one  directly  destructive  of  the  pest. 

Observation  of  other  signs,  which,  however,  require  the 
eye  of  the  practised  entomologist  or  dendrologist,  leads  to  a 
recognition  of  the  impending  danger. 

The  number  of  insects  observed  in  previous  seasons  may 
also  be  used  as  an  indication  of  what  to  e.x{)ect  in  the  follow- 
ing year,  since  insect  pests  are  apt  to  grow  from  year  to 
year  until  a  climax  is  reached  and  their  progress  checked 
by  natural  enemies  or  by  an  untoward  season. 

In  city  streets,  where  only  certain  species  of  trees  are 
planted  and  the  same  species  lines  street  after  street,  the 
development  of  insects  depending  on  that  species  is  naturally 
favored :  a  city  of  elms  is  also  a  city  of  elm-beetles.  Hence, 
one  may  expect  here  a  yearly  incursion,  and  preventive 
measures  should  be  taken  as  systematically  as  street  clean- 
ing, or  as  any  other  regular  public  function  is  performed. 


A  :  ■•  -^ 


Fungus  and  Bacterial  Diseases  55 

If  the  timely  examination  of  insect  conditions  has  been 
neglected,  then  the  diagnosis  wiU  be  made  when  the  dam- 
age has  begun  or  has  progressed  to  some  degree.  The 
insect  can  be  observed  at  work,  the  culprit  captured  and  its 
name  or  character  determined  With  the  leaf-eaters  this 
is  usually  readily  accomplished,  but  the  sucking  insects 
whose  damage  is  not  at  once  apparent,  as  well  as  the  bark- 
beetles   and   borers   are   discovered   by   close   observation 

""xhe  small  round  entrance  holes  in  the  bark  of  conifers, 
accompanied  by  resinous  exudation,  and  finally  the  loosen- 
ing of  patches  of  bark  where  the  cambium  has  been  de- 
stroved  give  evidence  of  the  presence  of  bark-beetles.  The 
pres'ence  of  borers  is  indicated  by  the  entrance  holes,  usu- 
ally near  the  base  of  the  tree,  and  by  the  excreta  or  finely 
divided  wood  particles,  wood-flour,  found  at  the  base  of  the 

^'^Fungus  and  Bacterial  Diseases.  The  fungus  diseases 
of  the  foliage  make  themselves  known  by  the  partial  dis- 
coloration of  the  leaves,  usually  in  spots  of  various  colors, 
and  by  the  powderv  aggregations  of  fruit-bodies,  silky, 
smutty,   or   other.>ise.     Sometimes   also   the   foUage   wilts 

or  dries  up. 

As   there   is  only  one  practicable  remedy  for  aU   these 
fungi,  namelv,  spraying  with  poisons,  it  is  not  necessary  to 
be  familiar  witi.  the  different  kinds,  beyond  recognizmg 
their  existence.    The  same  can  be  said  of  the  rot  fungi, 
which  practically  behave  alike,  and  are  treated  alike.     Dis- 
coloration of  the  wood  in  wounds,  and  whitish  or  yeUowish 
mycelia  strands  breaking  through  the  tissues,  and  finally 
the  fruit-bodv  proclaim  the  presence  of  rot  fungi.    The 
dying  of  portions  of  the  crown  on  account  of  reduced  water 
conduction  may  also  be  due  to  these  fungi- 


! 


56 


Diagnosing  of  Diseases 


The  existence  of  the  root  rot  which  produces  stunted 
growth  and  eventually  death,  may  be  determined  by  close 
observation  in  finding  a  whitish,  yellowish,  or  dark  brown 
growth  of  loosely  interwoven,  )•  air-like  mycelium  threads 
on  the  root  surface  and  in  decaying  tissues,  or  in  the  soil 
itself.  This  mycelium  will  also  be  found  between  wood 
and  bark  in  whitish  leather  sheets,  and  will  grow  into  the 
bark  at  the  base  of  the  tree  above  ground,  finally  producing 
here  and  on  exposed  roots  the  readily  recognized  fruit- 
body. 

There  is  at  least  one  insiduous  disease,  known  to  be  due 
to  bacteria,  a  disease  peculiar  to  North  America,  and  famil- 
iar under  the  name  of  fire-blight,  which  attacks  the  trees  of 
the  apple  family,  and  especially  the  pears  and  quinces,  but 
also  the  mountain-ash,  service-berry,  and  hawthorn.  It  is 
evidenced  by  the  browning  and  subsequent  blackening,  first 
of  the  leaves  and  finally  of  young  twigs  and  shoots,  starting 
at  the  tips  and  progressing  downward  until  even  the  larger 
branches,  may  be  infected.  The  bark  of  the  diseased 
branches  cracks,  and  a  thick,  blackish,  gummy  fluid  exudes, 
the  bark  later  drying  up  and  shrinking.  The  disease  may 
even  descend  into  the  trunk,  then  resembling  sun-scald. 

Curiously  enough,  healthy,  vigorous,  well-fed,  and  well 
cultivated  trees  are  more  liable  to  this  malady  than  less 
thrifty  ones,  new  succulent  growth  favoring  the  disease. 
There  is  but  one  remedy,  namely,  to  cut  out  and  burn  the 
affected  parts  well  below  the  discolored  portions.  This 
should  be  done  during  winter  or  ^.ring,  or  in  the  fall  after 
the  trees  have  stopped  forming  wood.  Checking  the  amount 
of  moisture  in  the  soil,  as,  for  example,  by  the  growth  of 
grass  or  clover,  will  reduce  the  succulent  growth  and  pre- 
vent the  disease. 

Physiological  Diseases.    Whenever  local  causes  of  the 


Effect  of  Soil  Conditions 


57 


diseases  of  foliage  are  present,  such  as  those  produced  by 
insects  or   fungi,  the  diagnosis  is  comparatively  easy  and 
the  remedy  readily  suggested;  but  in  the  absence  of  such  ocal 
disturbances,  when  the  evident  abnormality  of  the  fohage 
is  due  to  more  remote  causes,  the  difficuhy  is  greater.     As 
long  as  fungus  growth  or  insect  depredations  on  bark,  wood 
and  root,  can  be  discovered  as  likely  to  have  produced  the 
disturbance  in  the  conditio;,  of  the  foliage,  even  a  layman 
mav  find  the  cause;  but  to  diagnose  the  so-caUed  physiolog- 
ical diseases  which  are  due  either  to  permanent  changes,  or 
to  some  unusual  temporary  conditions  in  the  environment, 
the  services  of  an  exi)ert  may  be  required. 

Changes  in  the  conditions  to  which  the  tree  was  origmaUy 
adapted  may  take  place  in  the  soil  or  in  the  Ught  supply 
(when  neighbors  are  removed  or  are  crowdmg),  or  they 
mav  simply  be  in  the  weather  conditions  of  the  particular 
season,  or,  in  many  cases,  the  combined  conditions  of  soil 
and  season  effect  the  sickness. 

Indeed,  whenever  the  conditions  of  nutrition  are  inter- 
fered with,  the  foliage  will  soon  give  evidence  of  it.  And 
in  this  connection,  the  soil  conditions,  especially  the  mechan- 
ical conditions  which  influence  water  and  air  supply,  are 
of  the  greatest  importance,  as  these  are  the  ones  which  can 
be  more  or  less  controlled. 

Effect  of  Soil  Conditions.  It  must  not  be  overlooked  that 
a  soil  changes  in  its  stucture  and  thereby  in  its  capacity  for 
water  conduction  and  aeration  by  the  compacting  of  rain- 
drops, by  frost,  and  in  many  other  ways,  so  that  the  same 
soil  which  was  originally  satisfactory  to  tree  growth,  may  m 
time  become  less  so.  Not  only  soils  exposed  directly  to 
rains,  but  also  those  under  s(k1,  or  even  under  sidewalks, 
become  constantly  more  and  more  compacted,  and  hence  a 
gradual  change  in  their  permeability  to  water  and  air  takes 


Diagnosing  of  Diseases 


place.  u„tU  in  an  unfavorable  season  this  reduction  of 

water  and  air  ^°"'2!ttm  expands  it  enters  new  regions 
Moreover.asthe™  s>   erne  P  ,^  ^  ^^^^^ 

and  |»ss.bly  less  favorable  stra  ^^^^^  ^ 

Therefore,  whenever  .f''"^' .  j'^'^i.Uy  ,hose  of  water 
examination  of  <h--  —  '  ^^'^ ,L  .he  basis  for 
supply  and  aera  .on,  f"™'^"'^  ^  j^^,,  „{  „ater, 

in  .he  appearance  of  .he  •™-^-./™'^,ts,  short  annual 
Pale  or  yeUowish  fohage,  under^ztd    ea      , 

shoots,  or  iong  ^P-^'-Lritso'  a  impact  heavy 

r^^^*t:?:::^-:li::^vg::i; 

::rjrr:r:ndrei;r;spiration  rendered 

^""P"'^'''',      l.nted  trees  especially  in  compact  soils,  these 
In  n-l>- P";^7,^'l.  death,  often    appear  as  a 
same    symptoms,   foUoANca  The  aeration  of  the  roots 

c„„se<,uenceoftoodeeppan,,n^  .^n  th  reby  precluded, 
and  lower  ,>or.,ons  of  *  "^  f  ^f  ;  ^^  ,he  water- 
alcoholic  '7-;.-°7  ,f  ,:;Lm  and'  young  wo«i  is 
conducung  function  »' .7,""  ,,,.3;^^^.  veUow  appeai- 
i^pedcd,  as  becomes  evrienUmthe^^^^^^^      .^  ^  ^^^  „ 

:ht-::c^:;r':;:^-----^ 

and  thus  help  themselves  „„tavorablv  influenc- 

A  surplus  of  wa^r  m  *^  »f '  .^"X;  ™„,,oms  mentioned, 
i„g  aeration  and  thereby  producng, he        ,  ^^^^,^^^^ 

rf:™aSft:":~^^^^ 


Eflfect  of  Soil  Conditions 


59 


the  foliage  have  been  changc.l:  an  excess  of  water  wdl  cause 
.n  ex  ess  of  cambial  activity,  and  this  may  cause  the  bark. 
IK.  on  vounK  twigs,  to  burst  open  in  si>ots,  from  a 
especially  on  vounf,  ivMb^.  ,  ,      This  k  found 

few  inches  to  a  foot,  exposmg  the  wood.     This  is  found 
ve  V  Trequentlv  on  currant  bushes,  but  occurs  also  m  oak, 
horL    hlut:  and  beech.     To  correct  this  and  some  other 
rr^  a   conditions,  the  expert  surgeon  applies  a  blood-kttmg 
rocess,  making  a  longitudinal  cut  through  the  bark,  whereby 
he  pressure  is  relieved;  such  a  wound  soon  heals.     In  other 
rces    like  the  silver  maple,  the  excessive  growth   sloughs 
olT  th..  old  bark,  rapidly  exposing  the  younger  bark.    This 
mav  be  followed  up  by  sun-scald  -  the  drymg  and  breakmg 
open  of  the  bark  -  with  the  consequences  usual  to  mechan- 

'"^'l"atnumber  of  malformations  in  young  shoots,  foliage 
and  Lit  are  also  attributable  to  excess  of  water-supply  at 

'*' Wv  common  result  of  the  change  in  the  relation  of 
consumption  to   supply  of  water,  as  for  example,  when  a 
tree  is  severelv  pruned,  or  in  the  case  of  mere  excess  of  water 
at  the  root,  is  the  formation  of  so-called  ^^^--P^^^^^ 
suckers  -  verv  vigorous  thin  long  shoots,  which  arise  form 
dormant  buds'out  of  regular  order  along  the  branches  and 
bo  e,  particularly  near  cut  branches.    These  may  or  may 
not  be  injurious.     They  interfere,  however,  with  the  sym- 
metrical development  of  the  crown,  and  they  are  injurious 
when  thev  rob  the  main  branches  of  water  and  cause  thei 
drving  out.    Thev  should   therefore  be  removed,   and   at 
the  same  time  tlie'  water-supply  at  the  roots  regu  ated. 

Thus  while  excess  of  water  on  compact  soil  becomes 
injurious  through  the  impeded  aeration  of  the  root  systern 
deficiency  of  water  in  a  drouthy  season  produces  similar 
resuhs  by  the  failure  to  supply  the  stream  of  transpiration 


6o 


Diagnosing  of  Diseases 


I 


from  the  foliage,  the  newly  formed  rootlets  dying  in  the 
dry  soil.  This  results  in  premature  yellowing  of  leaves  on 
single  branches,  a  shortening  of  the  year's  shoot  and  the 
drying  out  first  of  portions  of  the  bark  and  finally  of  entire 
branches. 

In  light  sandy  soils  this  deficiency  of  water  at  the  root 
may  be  due  to  over-drainage,  or,  in  compact  soils,  to  the 
packing  and  caking  of  the  surface  layers,  preventing  aeration 
as  well  as  the  penetration  of  water.  This  hindrance  to 
penetration,  especially  in  pa\cd  and  asphalted  streets,  grows 
more  and  more  pronounced  from  year  to  year,  and  hence 
premature  loss  of  vigor  is  the  consequence  unless  assistance 
is  given  at  the  root. 

Since  trees  get  their  water-supply  from  great  depths,  the 
drouth  must  be  very  protracted  before  the  effect  is  felt, 
except  in  shallow  soils,  on  rocky  ledges,  etc.  Yet,  in  our 
country,  there  occur  seasons,  when  the  drou.n  is  so  severe 
and  protracted  that  even  well-established  s|)ecimens  of 
native  trees,  such  as  Rock  Maple,  and  White  Pine,  have 
their  leaves  badly  scorched.  The  leaves  then  do  not  fall,  but 
become  brown  and  dry,  uiid  remain  hanging  on  the  twigs. 
A  very  similar  appearance  of  foliage  in  early  spring,  espe- 
cially in  conifers  and  other  evergreens,  such  as  Rhodo- 
dendrons and  Buxus,  is  due  to  winter  drouth.  This  is 
experienced  usually  when,  with  the  ground  still  frozen,  a 
sudden  rise  of  temperature  occurs  and  dry  winds  prexail 
which  overtax  the  transpiration  current  from  the  leaves. 
This  "burning"  of  the  leaves  is  chiefly  confined  to  that 
side  of  the  tree  which  is  exposed  to  the  prevailing  winds. 

In  fruit  trees  there  are  quite  a  number  of  other  symptoms 
due  to  deficiency  of  water  which  do  not  concern  us  here. 

Different  species  make  different  requirements  on  water- 
supply,  some  adapting  themselves  to  deficiency  or  excess 


■^^•' — ^"-w 


Effect  of  Soil  Conditions 


6i 


more  readily  than  others.  These  latter,  like  the  Swamp  Oak. 
Bald  Cypress  and  Alder,  especiaUy  when  they  have  once 
adapted  themselves  to  swampy  life  are  at  a  great  disadvan- 
tage if  the  coii'iitions  arc  suddenly  changed.  It  is,  there- 
fore, possible  that  in  newly  planted  trees  any  adment  is 
merely  due  to  change  from  one  set  of  conditions  to  another 
to  which  the  tree  is  not  as  yet  adapted.  Thus  a  tree  moved 
from  a  shady  position  to  one  of  more  intense  light  will  suffer 
for  a  time  until  the  foUage  is  adapted  to  the  new  environ- 
ment. .    „ 

In  passing  it  is  interesting  to  note  that  even  a  physicaUy 
moist  or  wet  soil  may  be  physiologically  dry,  that  is  to  say, 
the  water  may  not  be  available  to  the  rootlets.  This  is 
the  case  in  swamps  where  the  water  is  saturated  with  humic 
acids  from  the  decay  of  vegetable  matter,  these  acids  having 
a  greater  attraction  for  the  water  than  the  rootlets  can  exer- 
cise Here  we  see  quite  frequently  the  disease  caUed  stag- 
head,  which  consists  in  the  drying  of  the  top  due  to  deficient 
water-supply  at  the  root. 

It  is,  therefore,  necessary  to  be  cautious  in  the  attempt  to 
diagnose  and  correct  water  conditions. 

The  death  of  the  top,  lop  dryness  or  staghead,  is  gradual, 
the  lower  branches  remaining  green,  their  annual  shoots, 
however,  becoming  shorter.    It  is  a  result  of  drouthy  con- 
ditions at  the  root,  which  may  be  caused  in  various  ways, 
other  than  the  one  just  cited.     In  forests  and  parks,  by  cut- 
ting out  or  burning  the  und. ."growth  and  by  severe  trim- 
ming,the  sun  is  given  access  to  the  ground.  As  a  consequence 
tht  decomposition  of  the  litter  and  humus  which  covers 
the  soil  proceeds  more  rapidly,  while  at  the  same  time  on 
account  of  the  increased  light  supply  the  foliage  becomes 
more  active.     Stimulated  by  the  increased  food  elaboration, 
all  the  benefited  trees  at  first  grow  more  vigorously  and  their 


62 


Diagnosing  of  Diseases 


I 


foliage  is  greatly  increased,  but  finally,  after  a  year  or  more, 
a  disproi)ortion  of  supi)ly  and  demand  arises,  and,  as  the 
lower  branches  appropriate  a  greater  share  of  the  water 
and  minerals  from  the  soil,  the  upi)er  ones  arc  starved  and 

die. 

We  will  see  later  that  electric  discharges  may  also  ccuse 

this  stagheadcd  condition. 

Ahhough  water  is  the  most  important  contribution  of 
the  soil  lo  tree  growth,  —  most  soils  containing  suiTicicnt 
quantities  of  the  needful  mineral  nutritive  elements  — 
yet,  sometimes  a  deficiency  of  the  latter  in  available  form 
may  account  for  sickly  appearance  of  the  foliage.  Hence 
the  chemical  constituents  of  the  soil  should  also  be  exam- 
ined. 

If  the  premature  yellowing  of  the  leaves  and  other  abnor- 
mal appearances  do  not  find  any  other  explanation,  they 
may  be  due  to  deficiency  in  iron,  magnesium,  potash,  lime, 
phosjihoric  acid  or  nitrogen,  and  the  application  of  appro- 
priate fertilizers  will  correct  the  evil. 

The  deficiency  most  likely  to  occur  is  in  nitrogen,  of  which 
trees  require  a  relatively  large  amount.  The  absence  of 
nitrogen  in  sulTu  icnt  quantity  is  indicated  by  the  etiolation 
of  the  foliage,  which  assumes  a  yellowish  or  even  a  whitish 
ajjpearance. 

It  Will  have  appeared  from  the  foregoing  statement  that, 
while  the  foliage  gives  sure  indications  that  something  is 
wrong,  it  is  not  so  easy  to  decide  what  is  wrong.  Different 
causes  may  produce  the  same  abnormal  ajjpearance  and 
the  same  behavior  in  foliage  and  twigs;  ju>l  as  the  paleness 
of  the  human  patient  may  be  due  to  various  causes. 

The  abnormality  may  be  primarily  due  not  to  local,  but 
to  more  remote  causes,  which  affect  the  whole  physiology 
of  the  tree,  and  often  the  secondary  evils,  which,  to  the 


Atmospheriral  Influences 


63 


uninitiated,  appear  as  the  true  source  of  the  disease,  are 
merely  the  result  of  the  unfavorable  phys.olog.c;U  condi- 
tions of  the  tree.  .•  r    1   ♦ 

Hence  in  diagnosi    :.  one  should  never  be  satisfied  to 
stop  short  of  an  examination  of  the  condition  of  the  patient 

in  all  directions.  ,    ,       . 

Atmospherical  Influences.    The  conditions  of  the  atmos- 
phere naturally  also  intluence  the  functions  of  the  tree,  but 
are  mostly  not  under  control.     Here,  too,  species  vary  m 
their  requirements  and   in   their  capacity  for  adaptation 
Here  e^  en  more  than  Nvith  reference  to  soil  conditions  (which 
are  under  control)  it  is  necessary  m  make  sure  of  the  natural 
adaptation  of  the  tree  to  its  surroundings.     And,  we  reit- 
erate it  is  not  only  the  sjjc^cies  that  nee<l  consideration,  but 
the  individual  itself,  when  tran>planted   from  one  set  of 
conditions  to  another.     For,  the  indixidual  tree  as  it  grows 
up  from  the  seed  has  the  capacity  of  adjusting  itself  to  its 
environment,  but  when   suddenly  trans,)lantc><l   into  other 
surroundings  it  cannot  do  so  at  once.     Hence  it  may  be 
ailing  for  some  time  until  it  graduaUy  adjusts  itself,  or  else 
it   may   succumb   to  the   unaccustomed   conditions,   either 
directfy  or  by  physiological  disease,  or  indirectly  by  faUing 
a  prev  to  i)arasites  in  its  enfeebled  state. 

If  'in  planting,  species  or  specimens  have  been  chosen 
which  are  adapted  neither  to  the  conditions  of  humidity  or 
drouth  nor  to  the  temperature  changes  of  the  atmosphere 
common  in  their  new  home,  they  will  suffer,  and  perhaps 
die  and  should  be  replacal  by  those  which  are  better  suited 
to  the  cnvironmeni.  Theoretically,  it  may  be  i)ossible  to 
help  such  exotics  by  regulating  the  soil  conditions,  and  to 
mitigate  climatic  conditions  by  screens  and  other  protec- 
tion; but  practically  this  is  usually  too  iroublcsomc. 

Soil  and  atmosphere  are  in  such  interdependence  as  far 


I 

I 

i      « 
!     1 


Il 


64 


Diagnosing  of  Diseases 


as  the  life  functions  of  a  tree  are  concerned,  that  the  influ- 
ences of  the  one  may  be  counteracted  or  increased  by  the 
influence  of  the  other:  drouthy  conditions  of  the  atmosphere 
may  be  met  by  irrigation  at  the  root;  cloudy  weather  may 
counteract  deficiency  of  water  at  the  n  t;  a  warm  soil  may 
start  growth  so  early  in  Uie  season  thai  frost  will  do  dam- 
age, which  othenvise  would  have  been  harmless.  These 
relations  involve  complications  which  may  baffle  even  an  ex- 
pert's diagnosis  as  to  the  true  cause  of  physiological  disease. 

The  humidity  and  temperature  of  the  atmosphere  are 
conditions  of  moment,  especially  in  frost  phenomena,  but 
the  soil  plays  in  liie.se  no  subordinate  r6le.  Indeed,  many 
frost  phenomena  are  more  dependent  on  soil  conditions  than 
on  temperature.  Stiff,  clayey  soils  are,  as  a  rule  more  liable 
to  frost  than  light  soils,  and  a  soil  producing  over-luxuriant 
growth  is  apt  to  exjKJse  the  imperfectly  ripened  wood  to 
damage  by  early  frosts  in  the  fall. 

There  are  three  seasons  in  which  frost  may  occur  with 
differing  effects,  namely,  the  fall  or  early  frosts,  the  winter 
cold,  and  the  spring  or  late  frosts. 

The  early  frosts  occurring  in  the  fall  at  the  end  of  the  grow- 
ing season  will  be  felt  especially  by  those  leaves  which  have 
not  been  shed,  and  by  the  tips  of  the  shoots  which  have 
not  j)erfected  their  growth.  Damp  locations  seem  to  induce 
this  late  growth,  or  at  least  do  not  seem  to  mature  the  wood 
as  well,  and  they  are  also  more  liable  to  fall  frosts  than  drier 
regions,  hence  draining  may  reduce  the  frost  danger. 

In  certain  [X)sitions  the  danger  from  frost  is  greater  than 
in  others,  and,  if  this  is  due  to  cold  air  settling  in  a  given 
place,  say  a  grouj)  of  trees,  it  may  be  corrected  by  opening 
up  the  group  and  thus  creating  a  draft  for  the  cold  air  to 
draw  off.  Conifers  may  suffer  especially  in  such  "frost 
holes." 


i^;. 


nffim 


Atmospherical  Influences 


65 


The  oropcr  treatmen.  for  trees  whose  shoots  have  been 
J'^aSHs  .0  head  .H-.bac.  severe.,,  .0  sou^d  .0^ 
in  Older  to  get  rid  of  the  injured,  and  to  supplant  it  oy 
a^tUrheaUhy  growth.  This  pruning  is  Iks,  , Ion.  sho.ll) 
before  the  oUa|e  starts,  when  the  exten.  of  .He  injury  can 
he  better  notici  Trees  or  branches  thu,  injure,  by  laU 
(iJs  mVs°  "etimes  leaf  ou.  and  bloom  in  spring,  bu,  they 
In  s"cc"tnb  for  lack  of  su^cient  water-supply  through 

%:t:;'"lge  with  the  ap....ac..f -.inter  wWchU 

a  naturd  physiological  process,  ;,  .no.o  .„   '- J™""^ 
.,.h  ch,.nges  in  ten-l-t-e  -ou  •  -,  .:.d  -J  „  .me 

STIlgn:::^::."  tr-eaves,  certain  spiles. 
TeU  Linden,   Black   Locust,  Poplar,  WiUow,  Oak 
Bald  cypress,  and  many  others  shed  more  or  ess jegu^arl>, 
„hole  branchlcls.  from  one  to  ten  years  od,  and  more. 
tS  phenomenon   may  also  be  considered   pathologic^, 
ahhough  it  oc.  urs  quite  frequently,  and  sometimes  regu- 
larrand  sysa .naticaUy.    Neither  the  cause  nor  the  rem- 
iv  isknown.    This  shedding  of  branchlels  ,s  entirely 
Afferent  from  the  I0--    of  the  tips  by  frost,  regularly  experi- 
enced by  some  species  like  Linden,  Elm,  and  Sycamore  and 
bv  exotics  which  rmd  >l-e  summer  ,00  short  to  fimsh  their 
orowth.    This  habitual  freezing  back  can  be  prevented  by 
defolialing  the  branchlels  before  growth  ceases,  when  the 
wood  will  harden  before  ihe  frosts  come. 

In  other  species  such  loss  of  llie  young  twigs  occurs  on^^ 
under  special  conditions,  namely,  when  the  young  wood 
l,as  not  been  matured  in  time.  This  is  apt  to  happen  when 
a  late  and  warm  moist  faU  follows  a  dry  summer,  mducing 
belated  growth  which  does  not  harden  but  remains  succulent 
and  is  nipped  more  or  less  severely  by  the  early  tro.sts. 


66 


Diagnosing  of  Diseases 


!il 


Late  pruning  in  summer  will  produce  such  late  growth  and 
is,  therefore,  to  be  avoided. 

The  late  or  spring  frosts  will  injure  mainly  the  new  tender 
growth  of  leaves  and  flowers,  and  the  opening  buds.  A 
temperature  from  two  to  even  seven  degrees  above  freezing 
point  may  suffice  to  do  the  damage.  Southern,  eastern, 
and  southeastern  exjx)sures  are  especially  dangerous,  for  in 
these  sun-warmed  situations  vegetation  awakens  in  early 
spring  and  the  terder  foliage  falls  readily  a  victim  to  the 
late  frost. 

Shade,  or  any  other  method  of  keeping  the  soil  cool  and 
retarding  the  activity  of  roots  and  buds  is  the  only  means  of 
counteracting  these  frosts.  In  most  cases  they  have  to  be 
endured,  or  avoided  by  selecting  late  budding  species  and 
varieties. 

Winter  cold,  as  a  rule,  does  not  do  much  damage,  yet 
occasionall)'  very  se\ere  and  persistent  cold,  causing  frost 
to  penetrate  the  soil  to  a  great  depth,  may  become  detri- 
mental, injuring  or  even  killing  trees  and  shrubs.  This 
is  especially  true  when  the  preceding  season  has  been  unfav- 
orable, or  for  other  reasons  the  i)lant.s  have  had  their  vitality 
impaired.  Soil  conditions  and  situation  have  considerable 
influence  on  the  occurrence  of  winter  killing,  just  as  they 
have  on  early  and  la*c  frosts;  high,  dry  ground  and  exposed 
places  being  v.spccially  subject  to  this  damage.  K\en 
native  species  arc  by  no  means  exempt.  The  loss  may  be 
only  in  buds,  or  in  twigs,  but,  if  the  roots  are  killed,  the 
entire  plant  may  succumb.  During  the  severe  winter  of 
!(/33-iQ04,  Red  Majile,  Butternut,  and  White  Pine  in  the 
State  of  \ew  York  were  killed  outright,  and  a  long  list  of 
trees  and  shrubs  were  jjartially  killed.  The  loss  of  part 
of  the  root  s\>(em  may  exhibit  itself,  as  in  any  other  case 
of  rai need  water-supply,  in  'he  loss  of  part  of  the  crown 


in 


Atmospherical  Influences 


67 


■  I 


and  a  thinning  of  the  top,  or  in  under-development  of  the 
foliage,  the  latter  being  smaller,  assuming  a  pendulous 
position  and  early  fall  coloring. 

The  best  preventive,  where  this  kind  of  loss  is  anticipated, 
consists  of  pruning  and  mulching  well,  in  order  to  restore 
the  proper  balance  between  root  and  crown. 

Winter  cold  will,  of  course,  affect  the  young  and  imma- 
ture twigs  in  the  same  way  as  do  the  late  frosts. 

In  smooth-barked  trees,  such  as  the  Beech  and  Horse- 
chestnut,  and  in  special  situations,  the  bark  of  branches  and 
young  trees  cracks  in  patches,  and  the  cambium  and  the 
young  wood  underneath  are  killed.  If  such  lesions  are 
extensive  they  may  lead  to  th:)  death  of  branch  or  tree. 
This  injury  generally  takes  place  on  the  southwest  side  and 
toward  the  end  of  winter  when  rapid  temperature  changes 
are  more  common;  a  few  warm  days  stimulate  the  cambium 
on  the  south  side  to  premature  activity;  freezing  weather 
following,  these  active  areas  are  killed,  the  young  wood 
cells  and  cambium  shrinking  away  from  them  and  the  bark 
cracking  and  drying  out.  Often  not  until  summer  does 
the  bark  split  and  reveal  the  damage  below. 

Such  frost  phenomena  as  the  killing  of  the  bark  aj^pcar 
in  very  variable  form,  such  as  small  frost  boils,  or  smaller  or 
larger  frost  plates,  the  dead  bark  splitting  off  from  the  live 
margins  and  rolling  back,  exposing  the  dead  wood,  which 
then  is  either  gradually  covered  up  by  a  callus  from  the 
marginal  cambium,  or  else  becomes  infesletl  by  fungi. 

The  worst  form  of  these  frost  injuries  is  the  malformation 
known  as  canker,  in  which  fungus  ])arasiles  also  take  part. 
Wet,  cool  localities  seem  to  predispose  trees  to  this  disease, 
but  severe  pruning  and  manuring  in  the  spring  may  j)rfxiuce 
the  same  effect;  this  curiously  enough,  seems  to  appear 
as  an  individual  peculiarity  wliich  can  be  transmitted  by 


I^i 


!i| 


I 


68 


Diagnosing  of  Diseases 


grafting.  Drainage  of  soil  and  more  careful  pruning  will 
reduce  the  disease.  The  cankerous  parts  should  be  cut 
out  to  the  living  cambium  and  covered  with  hot  tar,  at  the 
same  time  the  exposed  side  should  be  partially  protected  by 
brush  or  boards,  until  the  cambium  overgrows  the  wound. 

Similar  results,  i.e.,  the  bursting  in  longitudinal  cracks 
and  killing  of  the  bark  and  of  underlying  wood  portions, 
are  produced  by  the  so-called  sun-scald,  which  is  also  espe- 
cially observed  on  the  south  and  southwest  sides  of  such 
smooth-barked  trees  as  Beech,  Apple,  Pear,  and  also  of 
the  soft-wooded  Basswood,  Horse-chestnut,  Chestnut,  Ash, 
Plane  tree.  Birch,  and  Willow.  It  is  an  open  questioh 
whether  this  is  not  due  in  part,  at  least,  to  frost,  in  conjunc- 
tion with  the  sun.  Protection  of  the  exposed  side  by  boards 
or  straw,  or  still  better  by  a  neighboring  shady  tree,  will 
avoid  the  trouble. 

When  the  fall  of  a  winter  temperature  is  very  sudden  and 
very  low  (below  zero)  frost  splits,  due  to  uneven  shrinkage 
of  the  wood  in  the  interior,  are  produced  in  a  variety  of 
trees;  especially  in  those  with  distinct  lieart-wood,  the  saj)- 
wooti  shrinking  more  ihan  the  heart-wood,  a  longitudinal 
split  results.  These  cracks  usually  close  up  during  warm 
weather,  a  callus  overgrowing  the  wound  forms  a  ridge 
and  the  damage  consists  only  in  this  malformation,  unless 
fungi  and  insects  gain  access.  Such  frost  sj)lits  occur  very 
frequently  in  northern  latitudes,  even  in  the  forest,  and  on 
very  cold  days  with  a  noise  resembling  a  gunshot. 

Obnoxious  Gases.  Finally,  special  conditions  of  the 
atmosphere  which  become  more  and  more  jiotent  in  our 
cities,  namely,  the  smoke  and  other  poisonous  gases  emanat- 
ing from  factories,  must  be  considered  as  causes  of  disease. 
The  merely  merhanical  black  en.. ring  of  coal  particles  and 
so<jt  which  set  tic  on  llie  luliage  will  only  slightly  reduce  the 


s^  - 


Obnoxious  Gases 


69 


function  of  the  leaves,  while  a  still  more  serious  injury 
comes  from  the  sulphurous  acid  which  accompanies  the 
smoke  of  most  coals,  and  poisons  the  foliage.  A  small 
amount  of  this  acid  taken  up  by  the  leaves  suffices  to  do  the 

mischief. 

In  most  cases,  however,  the  movement  of  the  air,  and 
the  chemical  change  of  sulphurous  acid  into  innocuous  sul- 
phuric acid  produced  by  contact  with  the  humid  air,  prevent 
the  worst  effect;  but,  if  conditions  are  favorable,  the  smoke 
of  a  brick  yard,  for  instance,  may  suffice  to  kill  the  foliage. 
Even  the  smoke  from  locomotives  may  become  injurious 
in  moist  climates,  or  in  certain  locations,  such  as  in  narrow 
valleys,  when  it  remains  stationary  for  some  time.  We  may 
mention  such  smoke-resistant  trees  as  Sycamore,  Poplar, 
Ash,  Alder,  Maple,  and  Elm. 

The  duration  of  the  poisonous  condition  of  the  air  rather 
than  the  concentration  of  the  poison  is  of  moment.     The 
first  visible  signs  of  poisoning  are  characteristic  pale  spots 
on  the  blades  of  leaves,  which  turn  brown,  while  the  veins  of 
the  leaves  remain  green ;  the  normal  water  movement  in  the 
leaves  is  interrupted  and  the  green  tissues  are  disorganized, 
the  tips  and    margins  of  the  leaves  being  first  affected  and 
drying  up.     The  effect  is  similar  to  that  of  drouth  and  sun- 
burn.   If  the  trouble  continues,  the  entire  leaf  becomes  yellow 
or  brown,  exGei)t  in  the  case  of  conifers,  wlicn  the  leaf  turns 
red.      Finally  the  leaf  rolls  uj)  and  dro{)s.      The  drier  the 
air,  the  higher  the  temperature  and  the  more  intense  the 
light,  in  other  words,  the  more  active  the  foliage,  the  more 
{[uickly  are  these  etTects  i)roduced.     The  effect  is  therefore 
greatLT  in  the  day  and  less  at  night.     The  poison  does  not 
penetrate  the  tree,  but  remains  in  the  foliage,  and  hence 
the  etTect   is  only  that  of  flefoliation   in  general,  namely, 
reduction  or  loss  of  foo<i  material. 


70 


Diagnosing  of  Diseases 


Chlorine  gas,  developed  by  the  burning  of  coal  in  smelters 
and  in  certain  soda  factories,  as  well  as  soluble  metallic 
oxides  from  various  manufactures,  have  similar  etTects. 

Only  the  systematic  suppression  of  the  smoke  nuisance, 
which  several  cities,  notably  St.  Louis,  have  begun,  and  the 
enforcement  of  factory  laws  (such  as  are  operati\e  in  most 
European  communities)  to  prevent  the  escape  into  the  air 
of  poisonous  substances,  will  remove  this  cause  of  disease 
for  which  there  is  no  remedy. 

The  escape  of  illuminating  gas  produces  similar  effects. 
To  injure  fohage  a  large  amount  of  this  gas  is  required, 
such  as  the  continuous  vitiation  of  the  air,  which  often  takes 
place  in  the  neighborhood  of  gas  works  or  of  natural  gas 
wells.  The  effect  is  usually  the  dying  of  {X)rtions  of  leaves, 
the  tips  and  margins  esix-cially  turning  brown  and  dry; 
sometimes  the  entire  leaf  becomes  dry  and  withered,  hang- 
ing, however,  tightly  to  the  branch. 

More  frequently  still  does  the  escape  of  gas  into  the  soil 
from  leaky  pipes  do  harm.  Indeed,  when  we  read  that  in 
1905  the  gas  companies  of  Massachusetts  experienced  a 
loss  of  ten  per  cent,  of  the  gas  actually  |jro<iucefi  we  must 
conclude  that  gas  leaks  arc  a  much  more  frequent  cause  of 
damage  to  trees  in  streets  and  j^arks  than  is  usually  sup- 
posed. 

It  is  jjrobably  tlie  sulphuretted  hydrogen,  which,  taken 
up  by  the  roots,  acts  as  a  poison.  The  result  of  gas  jjoi.son- 
ing  may  be  only  a  partial  or  local  dying  of  parts,  namely, 
of  those  directly  affected  by  the  leak;  but  it  may  also  cau.-<' 
death  of  the  whole  tree. 

The  presence  of  the  gas  is  detected  by  the  odor  when  the 
ground  is  turned,  and  by  a  blue  coloration  of  the  roots  or 
of  the  sap-wood,  ascertained  by  boring  or  chipj>ing.  This 
gas  kills  the  roots,  and,  as  a  consequence,  discoloration  and 


Electric  Currents 


71 


premature  dropping  of  leaves  ami  dying  of  branches  occur 
above  the  afTectcd  root.  A  characteristic  outward  sign  for 
diagnosis  is  the  darkening  and  rapid  loosening  and  faUing 
of  the  bark,  similar  to    what  occurs  in  the  case  of  kerosei.e 

poisoning. 

If  the  leak  is  a  sudden  one  and  the  gas  escapes  m  a  large 
quantitv,  a  tree  in  full  foliage  may  suddenly  have  its  leaves 
droop   and   turn   brown;   these   hanging  on,   however,   till 
wintc-  winds  tear  them  off;  such  trees  die  in  short  order. 
In  some  cases  trees  have  been  known  to  have  been  killed 
bv  gas  in  a  .single  night. 
'  If,  however,  the  leak  is  slow  and  smaU,  only  a  single  root 
and  its  corresponding  crown  parts  may  be  killed,  but,  if 
the  leak  continues  and  the  gas  spreads  in  the  soil  —  which  in 
loose  .soils  mav  go  on  rapidly  for  a  thousand  feet  or  more, 
-  general  debiUly  develops  anrl   the  whole  tree  gradually 
succumbs.     There  is  practically  no  recover}-  for  a  tree  once 
severclv  poi.soncd  in  this  wax ,  for  the  soil  is  saturated  with 
gas,  the  roots  arc  killed,  and  it  is  practically  impossible  to 

renew  the  soil. 

Watering,  which  has  been  proposed  as  a  remedy,  does 
not  seem  to  counteract  the  poison.  If  detected  in  time, 
renewal  of  the  soil,  root  pruning,  and  severe  cutting  back 
may  restore  the  patient. 

Electric  Currents.  The  ajjpearance  of  trees  killed  by 
gas  is  \ery  mucli  the  .same  as  that  of  those  killed  by  lighi- 
»/«g  or  electric  currents,  the  foliage  dying  and  remaining 
hanging  on  the  tree.  This  takes  place  not  necessarily  only 
on  trees  which  sliow  tlie  lightning  .slroki-  along  the  trunk, 
l)ul  also  as  a  result  of  general  electric  conflitions  of  the 
atmosphere,  or  of  a  di.scharge  through  the  wliole  tree,  with- 
out any  ap{)arent  actual  mechanical  injury. 

If  the  .stroke  follows  a  vertical  line  along  one  side  of  the 


n 


Diagnosing  of  Diseases 


i 


bole  there  may  not  be  any  more  consequences  than  accom- 
pany any  ordinary  or  frost-split  wound  which  may  be  healed 
by  callusing,  but  when  it  follows  a  spiral  course,  killing 
cambium  on  all  sides  of  the  tree,  the  result  is  like  that  of 
girdling. 

Very  lately  it  has  been  discovered  and  experimentally 
demonstrated  '  that  electric  shocks  of  low  tension  occurring 
during  thunder-storms,  especially  in  winter,  are  the  frequent 
cause  of  the  phenomenon  described  above  as  staghead,  the 
leader  and  upper  portions  of  the  crown  for  from  five  to  ten 
feet  or  more  being  killed  while  the  rest  of  the  tree  remains 
uninjured. 

E\ery  tree  owner  should  look  out  for  the  wire  stringer, 
who  not  only  disfigures  the  tree  by  chopping  off  branches, 
regardless  of  consequences,  but  introduces  the  danger  of 
electrocution.  Trees  and  branches,  beating  against  elec- 
tric wires  in  winter  storms,  wear  off  the  insulation  and  thus 
establish  short  circuits,  which  under  certain  weather  condi- 
tions as,  for  examj^le,  in  a  thunder-storm,  may  bring  about 
the  total  destruction  of  a  long-cherished  old  tree. 

According  to  the  latest  investigations  ^  there  is  a  difference 
in  the  effects  of  direct  currents  which  are  used  chiefly  in 
operating  electric  railroads,  and  of  alternating  currents  of 
the  electric  light  plants,  which,  although  carrying  a  higher 
current,  appear  to  be  less  disastrous. 

In  moist  or  wet  weather,  when  the  tree  is  covered  with  a 
film  of  water,  the  current  causes,  at  the  point  of  contact,  an 
injury  to  the  tree,  which  provides  favorable  conditions  for 
leakage  through  the  film  of  water,  grounding  the  current  and 
burning  the  limb,  partially  or  entirely  killing  the  cambium 

'  Sec  Forestry  Quarterly,  Feb.,  1904. 

'"Injurios  Id  Shade  trees  from  Electricity."  Bulletin  No.  gi,  Mass. 
Agr.  College. 


■V>.:,. 


Light  Conditions 


73 


/  . 


at  point  of  contact,  and  drying  out  the  limb  above.  With 
ahernating  currents  the  damage  seems  usually  confined  to 
[his  local  destruction  at  or  near  the  point  of  contact  as  a 
resuU  of  the  heat  created.  With  direct  currents,  in  addi- 
tion to  these  local  burnings,  electric  effects  are  sometimes 
noted  at  a  distance,  the  escaping  current  girdling  trees  at 
the  base,  and  killing  the  cambium  without  the  characteristic 
burning  at  point  of  contact  or  at  point  of  discharge.  This 
appears  to  hapi)en  only  when  the  positive  current  is  not  as 
usually  carried  by  the  feed -wire,  but  by  the  rail,  and  leak- 
age through  imperfect  rail-connection  occurs.  In  an  ob- 
served case  the  damage  was  done  when  the  trees  were  four 
feet  from  the  rail,  the  moisture  conditions  of  soil  and  bark 
being  evidently  most  favorable  for  electric  discharge. 

The  only  help  is,  of  course,  to  string  the  wires  outside  of- 
the  tree  line,  or  at  least  to  prevent  contact,  keeping  in  mind 
that   winds   will   sway   the  branches   and    that   allowance 
must  be  made  for  this. 

No  authentic  cases  of  injury  or  death,  due  to  the  mere 
effect  of  the  Ught  of  arc  lamps,  are  on  record. 

Light  Conditions  Where  trees  are  planted  close  to- 
gether, standing  in  groups  or  clumps,  there  is  apt  to  be  an 
uneven  distribution  of  lighf,  some  trees  or  some  parts  of 
trees  being  dei)rived  by  their  neighbors  of  a  sufficiency  in 
that  respect.  The  light  is  necessary,  as  we  have  seen,  for 
the  leaf  to  perform  its  functions  in  assimilating  food.  Defi- 
ciency in  this  respect  may  show  itself  in  etiolation,  \hc  leaves 
becoming  small  and  elongated,  and  the  leaf-slaiks  and 
branchlets  thin  and  slender.  Finally,  when  the  shade 
becomes  too  dense,  the  shaded  portions  die.  This  very 
imjjortant  observation  is  utiUzed  by  the  forester  in  secui- 
ing  branchless  boles  by  the  natural  trimming  that  takes 
place  in  dense  growths. 


I 


1 


"!1 


Diagnosing  of  Diseases 


74 
It  stands  to  reason  that  the  stronger  and  more  sh^e- 

Moisture.     Pruning  back  of  the  stronger  w,U  g.vc  the 
wpakcr  a  chance  for  development. 

ct  Tncccssarv.  however,  with  some  species,  espec^l^^ 
conifc  s,  in  not  opening  up  too  rapidly,  so  that  the  fohage 
L  Rracluallv  adapt  itself  to  the  new  light  condutons. 

Wherever  '.here  are  trees  planted  in  groups  or  as  do^ 
neghbors  this  relative  shade  endurance  becomes  one  of 
Tmo"  important  factors  in  influencing  the  form  deve  op- 
'It  of  the  tree,  and  "here  ligh.-nee<i,ng  s,«c.s  are  n 
competition  with  shade-endurmg,  the  former  are  hkely 
lose  the  battle.  ,  „. 

M.chamc.1  Injuries.     FinaUy,  ''  ™"'/'   '"'^^""t 
„f  disease   so   far  discus.sed    can    be  adduced   as  occa 
Itg  abnormal  conditions,  we  must  lc«k  for  mechan.cal 

"'"s  we  have  seen,  mechanical  injuries  to  the  ba.;k  and 
...^.  b  .  whatever  agency  inflicted  are  ■■-'  of  a.  m^unous 
bv  adraiuing  destructive   fungi.    In   adduion,   the  bark 
b  and,,  or  btle  being  broken  or  torn  oil  '^^^^^^^^^f, 
the   un<lcrhHg  cambium   and   young  wood   is  killed   a.,d 
dered  inactive  in  conducting  water  and  '0°;'  ™ -als 
A.  a  consCMuence.  M.mc  pans  of  .he  crown  -  1  of   h     00 
svstem  arc  un.lerfcd  a„,l  sutler  in  pro|K,rllon  to  the  extent 
rf  lu-  iniurv.   unlil  the  wound  is  healed   ami  clos^l    a, 

si.  such  injuries  arc  one-sided  and  it  ^J^^^ 
particular  branch  or  one  si.le  of  the  '7' ."'"''^;'^°>;   ™^ 
„„ucnce  of  ihe  under  feeling  in  the  fohage  "     "  J^^  - 
lotions.     More    reganling    the    nature    and    ph,  siologicl 


Mechanical  Injuries 


75 


influence  of  these  injuries  will  be  found  in  the  discussion  of 
their  repair  in  the  next  chapter. 

It  will  ha  e  become  clear  that  the  diagnosis  of  diseases 
in  trees,  although  by  no  means  as  complicated  as  in  the 
animal,  nevertheless  requires  considerable  knowledge  and 
judgment. 


m'-'ri^\''ii^'af^^SliS^& 


m 


f  ;l 


CHAPTER  V 

CONTROL  OF   PHYSIOLOGICAL   DISEASES  AND 

TREATMENT  OF   MPXHANICAL  INJURIES 

-  GENERAL  CARE  OF  TREES 

UST  as  in  all  other  cases,  the  ills  to  which  trees 
are  exposed   are  best    nut  with  the  prescrip- 
tion of  the  old  adage:  "An  ounce  of  prevention 
is  worth  a  pound  of  cure." 
Just  as  the  ph vsician  insists  upon  sanitary  conditions,  as 
a  means  of  preventing  disease,  so  the  tree  doctor  should 
insi.st  upon  securing  the  most  favorable  conditions  of  growth 
for  his  charges.     These  may  be  achieved  by  lookmg  after 
soil  conditions,  mainly  with  reference  to  air  and  water-sup- 
plv;  bv  providing  a  satisfactory  amount  of  light,  and,  above 
ali  bv  timelv  and  judicious  surgery-    pruning,  by  which  the 
consumption  of  supplies  from  the  root  can  be  regulated 
sometimes  more  easily  than  the  supply  in  the  soil  itself. 

These  two  means,  then,  regulation  of  foUage  develo,.morit 
bv  pruning  and  soil  improvement,  are  compensating  and 
siu.uld  usuallv  go  hand  in  hand.  Timely  attention  to  these 
requirements  will  prevent  many  of  the  troubles  to  which 
trec^  are  liable,  and,  when  trouble  has  come,  half  the  battle 
is  won  if  these  conditions  of  favorable  nutrition  are  estab- 
lished and  the  tree  has  been  kept  in  vigor  to  fight  off  the 

disease. 

We  shall  devote  this  chapter,  therefore,  entirely  to  the 
discussion  of  proper  care  in  soil  conditions  and  in  pruning, 

76 


Soil  Improvement 


n 


whereby  physiological  diseases  are  prevented  or  cured,  and 
mechanical  injuries  rendered  harmless.  Too  much  stress 
cannot  be  laid  uj)on  the  need  of  such  care.  Tree  owners 
do  not  seem  to  realize  that,  after  the  plantation  is  made,  it 
still  requires  attention;  that  most  trees  deteriorate  or  die 
because  they  are  underfed  and  allowed  to  dry  up.  Sufficient 
water-supply  is  the  most  imporlani  means  of  mainlaining 
healthy  tree  gnruih. 

Soil  Improvement.  The  most  natural  conditions  for  tree 
growth  arc  found  in  the  virgin  forest:  a  soil  continuously 
shaded,  practically  free  from  grass  and  weeds,  covered  with 
a  heavy  mulch  of  decaying  foliage  and  of  humus,  which 
prevents  evaporation  and  keeps  the  soil  granular,  easily 
penetrable  to  water  and  air,  and  well  supplied  with  food 
materials. 

Street  trees  and  lawn  trees  are  not  growing  under  natural 
conditions.  In  the  one  case  the  pavement  keeps  much  of 
the  wattr  from  penetrating,  while  in  the  case  of  the  lawn, 
the  grass  competes  severely  with  the  tree  for  water,  and  the 
natural  mulch  of  foliage  is  raked  off  every  year,  and  thus 
food  materials  and  soil  protection  are  removed  and  much 
moisture  is  allowed  to  evaporate. 

Such  trees  are,  therefore,  more  or  less  on  starvation  rations; 
they  show  almost  always  that  they  are  underfed,  or  else  suffer 
in  their  resjnration,  and,  if  any  other  contributive  cause  for 
unhealthy  condition  is  added,  they  readily  succumb,  espe- 
cially as  they  grow  older  and  the  difficulties  of  securing  their 
water-supfily  increase  with  age. 

In  lawns,  therefore,  and  in  streets,  where  practicable, 
the  sod  should  be  taken  up  from  time  to  time,  or  the  soil 
stirred  so  as  to  secure  better  aeration,  ind  a  dressing  of 
hardwood  ashes,  of  garden  mold  or  of  well  rotted  stable 
manure  apitlicd,  and  possibly  a  mulch  of  spent  bark  shav- 


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78 


General  Care  of  Trees 


Mi 


Hi 


.  i 


ings  or  leaves  should  be  added.  If  this  is  done  in  the  fall 
the  tree  wiU  be  invigorated  with  new  life,  the  winter  moist- 
ure will  penetrate,  and  new  rootlets  will  form  m  larger 
numbers,  for  root  activity  continues  long  after  the  fa  1 
of  leaves  In  the  spring  the  sod  may  be  re-estabhshcd, 
ahhough  badly  starved  trees  will  be  benefited  by  keeping 
them  mulched  for  a  few  seasons.  The  mulch  should  not 
be  too  thick,  just  enough  to  prevent  the  pattering  ram  from 
compacting  the  soil,  and  to  prevent  evaporation  from  it; 
thi«  mav  be  attained  by  a  cover  not  heavier  than  one-half 
to  one  inch.  Nor  should  the  mulch  be  allowed  to  become 
compacted  itself,  so  as  to  impede  free  penetration  of  water 

and  air.  ,        , 

There  is  not  much  value  in  making  this  application  close 
around  the  stem;  it  is  under  the  trough  of  the  outer  foliage, 
under  the  ambitus  of  the  crown,  that  the  main  feedmg  root- 
lets are  located,  and  here  the  treatment  will  most  benefit 

the  patient. 

On  shallow  and  very  compact  clay  soils  this  treatment 
should  be  frequently  repeated,  and  possibly  at  the  same 
time  some  sand  or  garden  mold  should  be  worked  into  the 
soil  or  else  an  application  of  lime,  marl,  or  gypsum  may  be 
made,  which  has  the  effect  of  granulating  a  stiff  soil,  making 
it  porous  and  thus  improving  its  water-conducting  capacity. 
The  application  of  slacked  lime,  as  free  as  possible  from 
magnesia,  should  be  made  during  the  winter  in  small  re- 
peated doses  at  the  rate  of  about  one  to  three  pounds  per 
hundred  square  feet. 

Watering,  where  practicable,  will,  of  course,  overcome 
the  effects  of  drouth;  but  it  must  be  kept  in  mind  that  a 
surplus  of  water  may  become  injurious  by  reducing  aera- 
tion Often,  the  mere  loosening  of  the  soil  is  sufficient  to 
correct  the  deficiency  in  water-supply:    the  loose  surface 


» 


Fertilizing 


79 


i     i 


soil  acts  precisely  like  a  mulch,  the  capillaries  having  been 
destroyed.  Hence  no  water  can  rise  from  below  into  the 
surface  layer,  and  thus  loss  of  water  by  evaporation  is  pre- 
vented. In  applying  water  to  the  surface,  therefore,  the 
compacting  of  the  soil  by  the  water  must  be  avoided,  and 
this  is  best  done  by  applying  the  water  through  ditches  or 
holes  near  the  tree,  by  sub-surface  watering. 

Where,  due  to  soil  and  topographic  conditions,  continued 
excess  of  moisture  is  experienced,  and  aeration  thus  im- 
peded, the  drainage  must  be  improved.  Usually  it  is  better 
simply  to  lower  the  water  table  than  to  attempt  thorough 
draining.  An  open  or  covered  ditch  properly  located  at 
some  distance  will  do  the  work.  Such  ditches  may  be  filled 
up  with  rubble  and  then  be  again  covered  and  sodded. 

It  is,  however,  advisable  to  be  very  cautious  in  attempt- 
ing the  regulation  of  the  water-supply  by  drainage,  for  not 
only  do  species  vary  in  their  water  requirements,  but  the 
individual  trees,  having  once  adapted  themselves  to  a  wet 
situation,  may  resent  any  sudden  change  of  condition. 
Time  must,  therefore,  be  allowed  the  tree  to  adapt  itself, 
by  changing  the  water  level  gradually,  while  at  the  same 
time  the  process  of  adaptation  may  be  assisted  by  judicious 
pruning. 

Fertilizing.  Troubles  due  to  deficiency  in  mineral  salts 
in  the  soil  are  of  rare  occurrence,  since  most  soils  contain 
sufficient  quantities  of  the  needful  minerals  of  which  trees 
rec^uire  only  small  amounts,  their  bodies  being  mainly  built 
up  from  the  carbon  of  the  air.  The  only  mineral  likely 
to  be  deficient  is  nitrogen,  the  lack  of  which  would  produce 
a  yellow  or  even  whitish  appearance  of  foliage.  In  nature 
this  mineral  is  provided  by  the  decay  of  fallen  leaves,  in 
which  the  nitrogen-gathering  bacteria  work.  So  the  practice 
of  raking  off  the  leaves  in  parks  is  one  way  of  starving  trees. 


i' 


i 


80 


General  Care  of  Trees 


A  nitrogenous  fertilizer,  or  an  occasional  dressing  with 
hardwood  ashes,  which  contain  the  required  minerals  in 
most  accessible  form,  is  to  be  recommended  wherever  the 
vigor  of  the  tree  is  impaired.  A  dressing  of  ten  pounds  of 
ashes'  per  hundred  square  feet,  costing  perhaps  twenty 
cents,  will  be  found  very  am])le. 

Although  in  most  cases  hardwood  ashes  are  as  good  a 
fertilizer  as  need  be,  for  very  impoverished  soils  the  follow- 
ing mixture  will  be  found  serviceable  and  should  be  applied 
in  early  spring  before  the  leaves  unfold,  namely,  one  pound 
of  nitrate  of  soda,  five  pounds  cotton-seed  meal,  two  pounds 
acid  phosphate,  two  pounds  muriate  of  potash,  the  whole 
mixed  together  just  before  usin-;  one  pound  of  this  mixture 
costing,  if  prepared  in  quantity,  less  than  two  cents  per 
pound,  will  suffice  for  a  hundred  sciuare  feet.  This  is  also 
an  excellent  top  dressing  for  lawns. 

The  growing  of  a  crop  of  clover,  alfalfa,  lupine,  or  some 
other  similar  crop  and  plowing  it  under  while  green,  is  also 
an  excellent  means  of  recuperating  impoverished  soil  both 
physically  and  chemically,  and  at  the  same  time  improving 
its  aeration. 

While  lawns  are  benefited  by  sheep,  cow,  and  horse  ma- 
nure, and  some  flowering  shrubs  respond  to  treatment  with  a 
compost  made  of  bone  dust  and  manure,  or  better  still, 
with  leaf-mold,  the  physical  improvement  of  the  soil  for 
water  conduction  bv  stirring  and  mulching,  as  advised  in 
the  preceding  pages,  is  usual!}-  all  sufficient  for  arborescent 

growth. 

Points  in  Grading.  One  of  the  most  common  mistakes 
causing  the  loss  of  many  old  trees,  is  the  filling  up  of 
ground  over  the  roots  in  grading  operauons.  by  which  water 
and  ...11  more  surely  the  necessary  air  is  excluded.  This 
careless  burving  of  the  roots  shows  inexcusable  ignorance 


Points  in  Grading 


8i 


;! 


of  the  requirements  of  tree  life,  for  if  the  cover  is  of  sufficient 
depth,  say  two  feet  or  more,  and  especially  if  of  compact 
soil,  it  will  usually  quickly  and  surely  kill  the  tree. 

No  less  ignorance  is  exhibited  by  those  who,  when  such 
filling  is  to  be  done,  leave  an  unfiUed  depression  or  space 
directly  around  the  bole,  perhaps  walling  it  up  with  brick 
and  covering  with  wiro  netting  or  filling  with  rubble.     In 
doing  this  the  notion  is  to  admit  rain  water,  and  perhaps 
also  air,  to  the  roots.     But,  while  undoubtedly  the  admis- 
sion of  water  and  air  is  facilitated  by  this  device,  the  need 
cf  water  and  air  is  much  less  near  the  bole  where  only  con- 
ducting roots  are  located,  than  on  or  towards  the  ambitus 
of  the  crown,  where  the  feeding  rootlets  lie  and  the  respira- 
tion is  mo.-',  actively  needed.     Filling  around  the  bole  is, 
to  be  sure,  undesirable  as  it  not  only  clogs  respiration  in 
that  part  of  the  bole,  but,  with  some  species,  induces  the 
formation  of  suckers,  which  weaken  the  tree.    Hence  the 
precaution  of  keeping  the  base  of  the  bole  free  is  a  good 
one,  but   it  does  not  compensate  for  the  fillirg  over  the 
feeding  rootlets. 

There  are  three  ways  of  meeting  the  trouble,  if  there  is 
a  strong  desire  to  save  the  trees  instead  of  removing  and 
replacing  them  by  others.  Where  practicable,  the  filling 
should  be  done  so  as  to  leave  depressions  with  gentle  slopes 
towards  the  feeding  area  of  the  root  system;  or  better  still, 
the  filling  should  be  done  gradually,  taking  if  possible 
several  years,  and  after  first  thoroughly  stirring  and  fertihz- 
ing  the  ground  around  the  roots,  so  that  the  tree  nay  make 
new  feeding  roots  towards  the  surface. 

Or,  where  deep  fillings  have  to  be  made  and  valuable 
trees  are  to  be  saved,  the  following  device  may  be  employed. 
After  the  ground  has  been  stirred  and  fertilized  as  suggested, 
an  air  chamber  may  be  established  by  covering  the  groui.d 


82 


General  Care  of  Trees 


ii 


with  ruhble  or  broken  stone  before  ])utting  down  earth  and 
sod,  keej'ing  the  space  around  the  bole  open  and  in  addition 
introducing  through  tiie  filled  ground  aerating  pipes  which 
connect  the  ai*-  chamber  with  the  outer  air. 

In  any  case,  trees  so  treated  should  be  at  the  same  time 
severely  pruned,  since  some  of  the  feeding  roots  art  bound 
to  die  and  it  is  necessary  to  establish  an  ecjuilibrium  between 
root  system  and  crown  system.  Otherwise  nature  will  do 
the  pruning  and  perhaps  not  in  the  manner  desired. 

DitTercnt  species  vary  in  their  sensitiveness  to  the  with- 
drawal of  air  and,  as  we  have  seen  before,  irees  which  have 
grown  up  in  swampy  conditions  make  provision  in  other 
ways  *o  meet  their  recjuirements  for  air,  and  may  therefore 
be  covered  to  a  considerable  extent  with  impunity.  In 
general  it  will  be  found  that  the  trees  naturally  growing  in  the 
swamp  will  stand  filling  best. 

The  depth  and  character  of  the  soil  used  for  cover  will 
naturally  also  have  to  be  considered,  since  with  a  loose  soil 
and  a  moderate  depth  the  respiration  may  not  be  materially 
interfered  with,  while  a  thinner  layer  of  clay  would  be 
detrimen'al. 

In  most  cases,  however,  the  safer  way  is  either  to  avoid 
the  giading  or  to  replace  wilb  new  trees. 

Whenever  it  becomes  necessary  in  grading,  making  of 
streets,  laying  of  conduits,  etc.,  to  cut  into  and  destroy  part 
of  the  root  system,  a  corresponding  amount  of  the  crown 
system  should  be  removed  by  proper  pruning,  keeping  in 
mind  the  fact  that  the  side  on  which  the  roots  are  destroyed 
is  the  one  that  needs  to  be  most  severely  pruned. 

The  aeration  and  watering  of  street  trees  is  a  most  difficult 
question,  especially  where  macadam  or  other  solid  pavement 
is  used.  It  is,  ther  fore,  necessary  in  the  first  place  to  choose 
species  which  are  fr  i.gal  in  that  respect.     Here  again,  species 


Pruning  and  Trimming 


83 


growing  naturall}  in  the  swamp  promise  well.  In  addi- 
tion, a  certain  space,  say  one  and  one-half  by  two  yards, 
should,  if  practicable,  be  left  unpaved  around  the  base  of 
the  tree,  and  this  space  should  be  kept  open,  stirred  and 
fertilized  from  time  to  time.  Where  this  is  not  practicable, 
a  smaller  space  left  unpaved  may  be  covered  l)y  a  grill  or 
iron  grating,  supported  on  woodfn  pegs  driven  in  tlie  ground. 
Such  grills  are  found  in  Paris,  licrlin,  and  London  (sec 
page  in)),  and  permit  of  watering  llie  trees.  This  treat- 
ment is,  to  be  sure,  applicable  only  with  new  plantings, 
when  the  trees  will  adapt  themseh'es  to  the  conditions. 
Where  old  established  trees  are  concerned,  it  is  doubtful 
whether  they  can  be  permanently  maintained  when  a  tight 
pavement  is  placed  over  their  roots. 

Pruning  and  Trimming.  Next  in  importance  to  atten- 
tion to  soil  conditions,  there  is  nothing  of  more  value  for 
avoiding  and  correcting  trouble  in  tree  economy  than  prop- 
erly applied  surgery. 

There  is  competition  everywliere  in  tlie  living  world, 
and  not  only  do  the  individual  trees  compete  with  each 
other  for  root  and  air  sj)ace,  water  and  light,  but  each  leaf, 
each  bud,  each  shoot  competes  with  its  neighbor,  although 
only  a  limited  number  can  develoj). 

As  we  have  seen,  trees  prune  themselves,  i.e.,  .some  01 
the  buds  and  branchlets  die  every  year  and  at:;  broken  off 
by  the  wind.  This  natural  pruning  is  the  result  of  the 
struggle  for  existence,  i.e.,  for  food  and  light  supply,  between 
the  buds  or  branchlets,  and  an  adjustment  in  the  economy 
of  the  tree,  keeping  the  balance  between  income  and  expend- 
iture. By  reducing  the  nrmber  of  mouths  to  be  fed  the 
remaining  are  better  fed.  There  is,  therefore,  not  neces- 
sarily any  appreliension  to  be  had  if  some  twigs  and  branches 
die  in  response  to  the  perfectly  normal  need  of  adjusting 


I 


i 


84 


General  Care  of  Trees 


consumption  to  nutrition  and  light  supply.  On  the  contrary, 
by  anticipating  this  natural  process  through  timely  artificial 
pruning  and  trimming,  still  further  advantage  can  be  secured; 
for,  by  interfering  early  and  limiting  the  competition,  the 
vitality  of  the  remaining  branches  is  increased,  so  that 
pruning  acts  very  much  like  soil  improvement. 

The  "common  practice  in  pruning  is  to  cut  out  the  dead 
wood;  the  proper  practice  is  to  prune  in  time  so  as  to  avoid 
as  much  as  possible  tlie  making  of  dead  wood. 

By  judicious  and  systematic  trimming  (heading  in),  both 
the  form  and  the  heahh  of  the  trees  are  improved,  and  in 

fruit  trees  even  the  fruit-bearing 
can  be  influenced,  —  but  this 
is  an  art  by  itself.  Such  trim- 
r  mg  should  be  done  annually 
,.:  biennially,  when  only  small 
changes  at  a  time  are  made,  the 
branchlets  cut  are  small,  and 
the  tree  economy  is  only  slightly  disturbed.  The  branch 
system  being  kept  shortened,  the  roots  are  much  more  likely 
to  suffice  in  supplying  the  needed  water  even  in  drouthy 
seasons,  while  enough  dormant  buds  will  develop  to  f^U  out 
the  crown  as  much  as  is  needful. 

Thus  by  timely  and  systematic  attention  we  can  produce 
just  such  forms  and  conditions  in  a  tree  as  we  desire,  instead 
of  leaving  it  to  the  accident  of  natural  development. 

Indeed,  in  such  light-needing  species  as  the  Sycamore 
or  Silver  Maple,  which  are  apt  to  thin  out  in  the  interior  of 
their  crown,  the  crown  may  be  considerably  improved  and 
the  foliage  cover  thickened  by  such  cutting  back  of  branches 
and  consequent  formation  of  new  branchlets,  which  fill  out 
the  otherwise  thin  crown.  Another  advantage  of  cutting 
"or  heading  back"   tiie  annual  shoots  in   rapid   growing 


Fig.  13.  —  Hedge  shears  for 
pruning. 


Pruning  and  Trimming 


85 


trees  with  sprawling  branch  systems,  as  in  the  case  of  the 
Soft  Maple,  is  I'  make  the  crown  more  compact  and  thereby 
to  increase  its  resistance  to  wind 
breakage. 

Unless  this  operation  is  judi- 
ciously performed  there  is  danger 
of  spoiling  the  natural  form  and 
making  the  crown  formal  and 
undesirable. 

Whenever  twigs  or  branches  are  dying  without  a  visible 


Fig.  14.  —  Levin's  patent 
pruning  shears. 


cause,  it  is  in  many, 
root  and  branch  syst 


-a, 
wood, 


>t  in  most  cases  a  sign  that  the 
not  in  equilibrium,  and  it  is 
to  remove  not  only  the  dead 
bi  also  some  of  the  green 
in  order  to  give  the  root 
system  opportunity  to  do  its  work 
more  easily. 

How  severely  this  surgery  may  be 
applied  depends  on  the  condition  of 
the  individual,  the  species,  and  the 
age.     Some  species,  even  when  quite 
old,   respond    more   readily   to    the 
treatment  than  others,  and  they  may 
be  cut  back  severely  into  old  parts 
and     yet     rehabilitate     themselves. 
Others,  Uke  the  ash,  do  not  respond 
so  readily  and  lose,  as  does  also  the 
oak  in  very  old  age,  the  power  of  re- 
jjlacement  by  dormant  buds.      Per- 
haps it  may  be  a  law  that  all  those 
that  sprou   readily  from  the  stump, 
such  as   the  oak  (when   young),  chestnut,   basswood,   and 
maple,  also  respond  readily  to  the  pruning  knife. 


Fig.  15.  —  Broken  branches 
which  have  not  been 
pruned,  liable  to  intro- 
duce rot. 


Ill 
11 


86 


General  Care  of  Trees 


Besides  the  trimming  for  form  and  equilibrium,  all  broken 
branches  must  be  at  once  prOned  in  proper  manner,  to  pre- 
vent location  of  fungus  spores,  for,  as  we  have  seen,  branch 
stumps  are  the  most  prolific  causes  for  the  beginning  of 
rot. 
The  rules  .or  proper  pruning,  although  simple  and  based 

on  a  knowledge  of   tree  physi- 
ology, seem  most  generally  un- 
known   or   overlooked,   because 
Fig.  i6.  —  Solid  steel  pruning   the  operation  is  left  to  ignorant 
shears.  workmen.     There    is    probably 

more  loss  of  tree  life  due  to  unskilful  pruning  than  to  any 
other  cause. 

Nothing  can  more  pithily  and  impressively  e.xpress  the 
public  attitude  still  prevailing  to  a  large  extent  on  t'  's 
subject  than  Lowell's  words  in  a  letter  directed  to  the  Presi- 
dent of  Harvard  University  in  1863,  a  letter  containing  so 
much  common  sense  on  tree  management  that  we  quote 
fully  from  it. 

"  Something  ought  to  be  done  about  the  trees  in  the  col- 
lege yard.  .  .  .  They  remind  me  always  of  a  young  author's 
first  volume  of  poems.  There  are  too  many  of  'em  and  too 
many  of  one  kind.  If  they  were  not  planted  in  sucH  formal 
rows,  they  would  typify  very  well  John  Bull's  notion  of  'our 
democracy'  where  every  tree  is  its  neighbor's  enemy  and  all 
turn  out  scrubs  in  the  end.  because  none  can  develop  fairly. 
...  I  think  Hesiod  (who  knew  something  of  country 
matters)  was  clearly  right  in  his  '  half  being  better  than  the 
who'e,'  and  nowhere  more  so  than  in  the  matter  of  trees. 
.  .  .  We  want  to  learn  that  one  fine  tree  is  worth  more  than 
any  mob  of  second-rate  ones.  We  want  to  take  a  leaf  out 
of  Chaucer's  book  and  understand  that  in  a  stately  grove 
every  tree  must  'stand  well  from  his  fellow  apart.'  .  .  . 


Manner  of  Operation 


87 


Nor  should  the  pruning  as  now  be  trusted  to  men  who  get 
all  they  cut  off,  and  whose  whole  notion  of  pruning,  accord- 
ingly, is  'ax  and  it  shall  be  given  unto  you.'  Do  pray  take 
this  matter  into  your  hands  —  for  you  know  how  to  love  a 
tree  —  and  give  us  a  modern  instance  of  a  wise  saw." 

Manner  of  Operation.  Wc  may  distinguish  between 
trimming  or  heading  in,  which  refers  to  cutting  back  or 
shortening  of  twigs  and  small  branchlets  with  shear  or 
knife,  and  i)runing  proper,  which  refers  to  operations  with 
axe  and  saw  in  removing  lorgtr  branches.  It  is  in  these 
latter  opv  ations  that  care  is  most  needful,  in  order  to  avoid 
secondary  damage  from  fungus  disease. 

The  tools  must  be  sharp;  the  saw  with  wide  set  for  laige 
branches;   the  cut  must  be  made  smooth.    When  cutting 
heavy    long   branches    there    is 
danger    of    the   weight    of    the 
branch    breaking   it  off    before 
the  cut  is  completed,  splitting, 
spHntering,  and  tearing  off  bark. 
To  avoid  this,  two  cuts  should 
be  made,  the  one  at  some  dis- 
tance, —  two    or    three    feet  — 
from  the  base  of  the  branch,  to 
relieve  the  leverage,  the  other, 
which  is  the  final  one,  or  near 
the  final  one,  at  the   base;  in 
both  cases  first  sawing  a  kerf  or 
notching  from  below  half  way  through  the  branch,  and  then 
sawing  or  notching  from  above,  in  order  to  avoid  splitting 
and  tearing  ofT  bark  on  the  lower  side. 

Wiih  very  large  branches  or  tops  to  be  removed,  mechan- 
ical appliances,  such  as  chains  and  ropes,  varying  with 
conditions  to  suit  the  case,  for  the  purpose  of  ->  voiding 


mm 


Fig.  17.  —  Method  of  removing 
a  heavy  branch  without  split- 
ting and  tearing  the  bark  on 
the  under  side,  the  lower  notch 
being  n^ade  first. 


88 


General  Care  of  Trees 


damage  will  readily  suggest  themselves.  A  rope  or  hook 
ladder  will  often  be  a  desirable  addition  to  the  outfit. 

Where  saw  or  axe  cannot  readily  be  used,  a  chisel  and 
mallet  may  be  substituted.  !n  any  case,  a  smooth  surface 
must  be  secured,  not  a  hacked  and  lacerated  wound. 

Always  cut  close  at  the  very  base  of  the  branch  to  be 
amputated,  with  a  cut  as  nearly  i)arallcl  to  and  even  with 
the  o-.tline  of  the  main  axis  (branch  or  trunk)  as  possible, 


Fig.  i8.  —  Good  and  bad  pruning.     .1 ,  side  view  of  good  and  bad  branch 
pruning;   B,  front  view  of  a  well  pruned  branch. 

leaving  no  portion  or  stub  of  the  amputated  dead  branch 
on  the  trunk.  Many  older  branches  as  well  as  younger, 
have  at  their  base  a  swelling  bulge,  sometimes  called  a 
"shoulder";  this  must  be  cut  into  and  removed  in  order  to 
satisfy  the  requirement  of  close  cutting,  in  spite  of  the  fact 
that  the  wound  is  thereby  greatly  enlarged. 

The  object  of  cutting  close  and  parallel  to  the  remaining 
axis  is  to  expedite  the  closing  of  the  wound  by  the  callus 
or  wound  wood  formed  from  th<>  -  imbium  at  the  margin, 
which,  as  we  will  i)resently  s  ,  is  more  readily  formed 
when  the  cut  is  made  as  prescribed.     Great  care  must  be 


Manner  of  Operation 


89 


f 


I-'io.  19. —Topping  shi 


taken  not  to  loosen  or  separate  tiie  bark  from   he  woofl  at 
the  margin  of  the  wound,  or  to  crush  Uh   car  jium  in  this 

region. 

All  wounds  must  be  .sm'X)thal  and  then  heavily  dressed 
with  an  antiseptic,  impcnctrabh  cover,  in  order  to  keep  out 
water,   and   with    it,  bacteria 


and    fungi.      Common    lead 

paint    answers    this    purpose 

best,  being  antiseptic  as  well 

as  lastingly   imjjenetrable   to 

water.    Hv  making  it  as  nearly 

as  [wssibie  the  .same  color  as  the  bark  the  unsightlincss  is 

reductxl.     Coal  tar  is  also  recommended,  but  aside  fiom 

its  un.sightly  color  it  .sometimes  damages  the  cr  .Mum  at 

the  edges,  and  is  not  as  ea.sily  hndled  as  le:ui  j)a: 

Be  sure  to  make  the  coating  thorough,  po.ssibly  applying 
two  or  three  coats.  This  coating  or  dres.sing  does  not 
influence  the  healing  process  in  any  way,  but  is  merely 
a  mechanical  device  to  keep  out  water  and  fungus  spores. 
Therefore,  every  cranny  should  be  fillt^J,  especially  the 
lower  edge,  which  collects  water  more  easily.  If  cracks 
appear,  tlie  coating  must  be  renewed  .so  as  to  fill  them  and 
keep  out  ihe  surface  waters 

\\  ith  the  observation  of  these  few  .'dimple  rules,  any  intel- 
ligent man  can  do  the  ordinary  pruning  without  doing  dam- 
age. 

As  to  the  time  of  pruning,  there  are  advantages  and  dis- 
advr-^ges  in  every  season,  although  the  operation  may  be 
performed  at  any  time  with  safety,  provided  it  is  properly 
executed.  During  the  early  growing  season,  when  the  bark 
peels  easily,  there  is  greater  danger  of  injuring  the  tret 
mechanically  by  bruising  the  bark;  so  it  is  better  to  defer 
the  pruning   until  fall,   winter,   or  very  early  spring.     In 


1- 


I 


go  General  Care  of  Trees 

summer  the  leaves  are  also  a  hindrance  to  the  work,  and, 
besides,  a  certain  amount  of  food  in  leaves  and  young  parts 
.^1  be  lost  to  the  tree,  endangering  the  hfe  of  a  propor- 
tionate number  of  rootlets,  or  at  least  -"^^^^^  >;/^"^- 
ing  the  reserve  stores.  Light  tnmmmg,  howexcr,  may 
usuallv  be  done  in  summer  with  impunity. 

For  pruning  into  live  parts  it  is  better  to  wait  until  the 

foUage  has  withered,  when  the  focxi  contents  of  the  leaves 

^  have  been  withdrawn  into  the 

trunk  and  become  available  for 
the  unfolding  of  the  next  year's 

buds. 

The  cold  winter  makes  prun- 
ing an  uncomfortable  operation. 
Fig.  20.  —  English  shears.         ^^^    ^^^    resuUs    are    therefore 

hazardous  and  less  efficient.  It  is,  in  addition,  phy^ologically 
undesirable,  except  on  mild  days,  as,  owing  to  the  uneven 
expansion  of  bark  and  wood  under  the  influence  of  frost,  the 
wood  is  apt  to  shrink  away  from  the  bark,  and  a  consider- 
able portion  of  the  cambium  may  be  kiUed,  rendering  the 
healing  process  more  difficult. 

For  the  choice  of  early  spring  (March  or  April)  it  is  said 
that  then  the  healing  process  of  the  wounds  sets  in  at  once, 
or  at  least  sooner  than  when  made  in  the  fall,  and  the  dan- 
ger of  fungus  infection  is  reduced. 

'  But  as  a  matter  of  fact  it  is  generally  believed  that  the 
season  has  not  any  appreciable  influence  on  the  healmg  of 
the  wound,  provided  the  pruning  is  properly  done,  which 
means  also  proper  protection  of  the  wound.  .Large  wounds 
especiallv  are  best  made  in  fall  or  early  winter  (October. 
November,  and  December  in  the  Northern  States)  rather 
than  in  spring.  In  winter  the  bark  adheres  firmly  and  the 
wood  is  dry  so  that  the  paint  or  tar  can  be  more  reauih 


Callusingand  Repairing 


91 


Fig.  21.  —  Malleable  pruning 
shears. 


applied,  while  in  spring  the  oozing  sap  of  many  species  will 
prevent  the  paint  from  sticking  or  the  tar  from  penetrating. 
If  pruned  in  the  fall,  the  wound  wood  begins  to  form  in 
the  early  spring  and  is  well  advanced  before  the  fungus 
spores  begin  to  fly.     The  com- 

I  parative     absence     of     fungus 

i  spores  in  late  fall  and  the  fact 

\  that   the   form   of   the    tree   is 

{  1  better  visible  when  the  foliage 

'   !  has  left  it  also  favors  this  season 

'  i  ^  as  compared  *vith  the  summer.  Or.ly  those  species, 
which,  like  the  maples  and  birches,  are  apt  to  bleed  freely 
even  late  in  the  autumn  and  early  in  spring,  are  best  pruned 
in  winter  or  late  summer,  although  the  bleeding  is  in  the 
main  detrimental  only  because  it  prevents  the  paint  from 

adhering. 

Callusing  and  Repairing.  We  will  now  briefly  look  at 
the  healing  process,  a  knowledge  of  which  will  be  useful 
to  the  pruner  and  will  assist  his  judgment,  esi  ecially  as  to 
where  and  how  to  locate  most  advantagcou.sly  the  cut 
in  trimming,  pruning,  and  repairing. 

When,  in  the  natural  order  of  things,  a  leaf  falls,  or  a 
piece  of  bark  is  sloughed  ofl',  as  is  so  conspicuously  done 

in  the  sycamore,  this  loss  of  parts 
has  been  gradually  prepared  for 
and   the  wound  is  already  cov- 
ered securely  by  a  cork  layer,  or 
a    temporary    covering    has    at 
least  been   provided   for  by  the 
formation  of  gum  or  resin,  before  this  final  voluntary  loss 
occurs.     When  an  involuntary  physical  injury,  as  the  tearing 
off  of  a  piece  of  li\e  bark  or  the  breaking  of  a  branch,  takes 
place,  a  similar  process  of  providing  a  covering  of  the  wound 


Fig.  22.  —  Sheep  shearing 
shears. 


'I  .    : 


i 


;    h 


1 '' 
■  • 


r 


M 
li 

u 


^2  General  Care  of  Trees 

sets  in   but  this  takes  time,  and  meanwhile  the  exposed 
part  is  subject  to  inimical  influences,  drying  out,  or  givmg 

access  to  parasites.  u  j  ^.. 

Of  course,  only  so  far  as  living  tissues  are  touched  or 
exposed  is  there  any  real  injury,  ^encescraprng  or  breaking 
off  the  dead  outer  bark  does  no  direct  harm  and  the  cutting 
off  of  dead  branches  in  the  dead  parts  produces  no  further 
results     W  hen  live  tissues  have  been  injured,  a  certain  area 
of  the 'wounded  and  exposed  live  tissues  dries  out  and  dies 
before  the  healing  process  has  begun,  and  it  is  only  by  the 
growth  of  neighboring  live  tissue  that  a  c^vermg  can  be 
graduaUy  established.     In  other  words,  the  cut  surface  or 
wound  consisting  of  dead  tissues  cannot  heal  over  as  a  flesh 
wound  does,  but  the  narrow  ring  of  cambium  cells  at  the 
margin  of  the  wound,  being  relieved  from  the  pressure  of 
the  bark,  subdivides  and  grows  rapidly;  and  an  excessive 
growth  of  wood  ceUs  and  bark  cells  takes  place,  forming 
The   so-called   callus  or  wound  wood,  and    this   protrudes 
from  the  old  bark  over  the  wound,  like  a  thick  mass  boiling 
over  from  the  rim  of  a  vessel.     Year  after  year  it  increases 
in  mass,  and  finally  covers  up  the  surface  mechanically, 
leaving  only  ^  scar  where  the  margins  meet;  and  in  time 
even  this  mav  vanish.     The  wound,  then,  is  not  really  healed ; 
merelv  a  mechanical  cover  or  cap  is  established,  not  organ- 
ically' connected  with  the  surface  of  the  wound,   and,  if 
properlv  cut,  it  comes  off  like  the  cover  of  a  box. 

In  conifers,  especiallv  in  young  trees,  usually  an  exuda- 
tion of  resin  first  covers  the  wound,  preventing  loss  of  water 
and  entrance  of  fungi,  but  the  callus  itself  forms  more  slowly, 
and  in  older  trees  both  processes  of  resin  and  callus  forma- 
tion may  become  feeble  or  fail  altogether,  so  that  careful 
attention  to  the  wounds  is  necessary. 
The  growth  of  the  callus,  like  all  other  growth,  takes 


Callusing  and  Repairing 


93 


place,  of  course,  during  the  growing  season  only,  and  is 
due  to  division  and  enlargement  of  cambium  cells  mto  wood, 
cork  or  bark  cells.  Since  these  cells  preferably  divide  ver- 
ticallv  or  lengthwise,  and  since  the  assimilated  food  materials 
required  in  their  growth  arc  carried  from  the  foliage  down- 
ward, the  upper  edges  and  the  sides  of  the  wound  usually 
close  more  rapidly  than  the 
lower  edges. 

For    the    same  reasons,   a 
branch  stub  protruding  from 
the   trunk  or  larger   branch 
heals  more  slowly,  for  here 
the  cells   must   divide   hori- 
zontally or  crosswise,  which 
they  do  with  difficuhy;  more- 
over, the  cells,  being  out  of 
the  direct  path  between  root 
and    foliage,  have  to  derive 
their   food    materials    circui- 
tously    from    a    neighboring 
branch,  and  are  apt  to  find  them  less  in  quantity  and  less 
readily  available  than  if  a  direct  supply  from  the  foliage  o 
its  own  lost  portion  could  have  been  had.     Hence  a  vertical 
wound,  running  up  or  down  the  trunk  or  branch,  is  much 
less   dangerous  and   more   quickly  covered  than  a   much 
smaller  wound  running  around   the  bole   or  branch,  and 
similarlv,  the  wound  made  by  the  loss  of  a  branch  at  its 
very  base  is  more  rapidly  closed  than  when  cut  or  broken 
above  the  b?se  and  across  the  diameter.     Branch  stubs  are, 
therefore,  apt  to  die  back  and  to  decay  most  readily,  because 
longer  exposed  to  the  action  of  rot  fungi  without  any  vital 
process  counteracting  these  fungi. 

In  the  case  of  small  branchlets  or  twigs,  which  have  been 


j.'„;    2^  — Satisfactory  growth  of  the 
callus  over  a  pruned  branch. 


Fig.  24.  —  Callusing  proceeding  from  the  sides,  not  the  top  or  base  of  the 

wound. 


94 


Callusing  and  Repairing 


95 


r  I 


i 

I 

)    I 

i 


i 


I 
■ 


trimmed  back,  if  the  wound  is  not  covered  at  once  with 
wax  —  which  keeps  it  moist  and  the  canuium  layer  at  i** 
circumference  active,  so  that  it  can  form  a  callus  under  tiic 
wax  —  the  twig  dries  out  and  dies  back  for  a  shorter  or 
longer  space.  The  cambium  below  the  dead  p.ortion  will, 
of  course,  seek  to  repair  the  damage,  and  its  activity  will 
make  itself  apparent  in  a  bulge  of  the  bark,  and  when  the 
dead  stump  has  broken  off,  the 
callus  will  i)roceed,  as  described 
above,  to  co\er  the  ragged 
wound. 

More  frequently  and  prefer- 
ably, a  bud  below  the  dead 
pcrticn  will  start  into  life  aad 
grow  into  a  shoot ;  the  shoot  will 
tend  to  take  the  direction  of  the 
mother  branch  and  by  its  growth 
at  the  base  will  expedite  the 
sloughing  off  of  the  dead  por- 
tion; in  this  way  the  woimd  is 
covered  more  rapidly  and  com- 
pletely than  by  the  ordinary 
callusing  process.  Thus  in  a 
short  time  its  e:  *  tence  is  only  to  be  inferred  by  a  crook  in 
the  branch;  and  eventually  even  this  crcok  may  be 
outgrown. 

Hence  in  trimminj;  b^ck,  care  should  be  taken  to  cut 
near  to  a  strong  bud  or  branch,  and  yet  not  near  enough  to 
have  the  bud  itself  dry  out  or  be  injured.  What  should  be 
the  distance  of  the  bud  from  the  wound  depends  on  a  vari- 
ety of  conditions,  which  influence  the  rapidity  and  intensity 
of  the  drying  out  of  the  -(  b.  If  cut  in  the  spring,  shortly 
before  or  after  the  activity  of  the  buds  has  begun,  the  cut 


Fig.  25.  —  A  bud  below  the  ter- 
minal branch  starling  into  ac- 
tive growth  to  supplant  the  lost 

limb. 


96 


General  Care  of  Trees 


<1 


may  be  made  quite  close  to  the  bud;  if  earlier,  it  will  be  safer 
to  leave  a  stub  of  a  quarter  to  a  half  inch  in  length.  Or 
the  stub  may  be  left  an  inch  or  more  at  first  cutting,  and 

after  the  bud  has  started,  the 
stub  may  be  cut  back  to  near 
the  base  of  the  new  shoot. 

The  rapidity  with  which 
wounds,  esi)ccially  large  ones, 
are  covered  up  by  callus  for- 
mation depends  on  various 
conditions.  Different  species 
behave  differently  in  this  re- 
spect, but  finally  the  general 
vigor  of  the  plant,  its  age 
and  its  condition  of  :  utrition, 
i.e.,  t'e  amount  of  food  ma- 
terials it  can  elaborate,  de- 
termine the  rate  of  progress. 
The  size  and  number  of  the 
wounds,  their  smoothness  or 
roughness,  their  location  on 

Fig.  26. —  Correct  method  of  trim-     jhg   bole,   whether    or    not    a 
ming,  a  stub  being  left  one-quarter  ,  1  •  1 

to  one-half  an  inch  aiwve  the  next    stump  has  been  improperly 

lower  bud  or  branchlet.  j^j^     ^^^    ^^^^    jj^    ^^.^gth    is 

all  these  facts  have  an  influence;  indeed,  conditions  are 
so  variable  that  it  is  impossible  to  give  definite  rules,  save 
in  a  given  case,  as  to  how  severe  the  pruning  may  be.  If, 
however,  the  wounds  have  been  properly  dressed  and  kept 
covered  against  water  and  fungi,  it  does  not  matter  how 
long  it  may  take  th(  to  close,  although  the  danger  of  llic 
deterioration  of  the  antiseptic  covering  naturally  increases 
with  time. 

Small  wounds  are  covered  relatively  much  more  quickly 


Callusing  and  Repairing 


97 


i 


than  large  ones.    The  \.  -)per  piactice  is,  therefore,  to  i)rune 

in  time,  so  as  to  avoid  the  cutting  of  large  branches. 
In   order   to   secure    a 

satisfactory  proportion  be- 
tween the  amount  of  food 

material  used  in  making 

callus,  and  the  supply,  it 

is  best  not  to  make  too 

many    large    wounds    at 

once,  and,  if  possible,  no 

wounds  larger  than  four 

to  six   inches   in  diame- 
ter.   Three  me»iium-sized 

branches  of  from  three  to 

four   inches   in  diameter 

may  be  safely  rem.oved  in 

any  one  year,  even  from 

old  trees,  and  the  wounds 

will   heal  in   from    three 

to  six  years,  while  young 

vigorous  trees  will  elaborate  enough  food 

care  of  a  larger  number. 

The  wounds  on  young  trees  and  in  the  younger  portions 

of  the  trees  heal  more  readily  than  those  on  old  trees  and 

those  near  the  base,  removed 
from  the  food-elaborating  foli- 
age. In  very  old  trees  which 
are  underfed,  the  callusing  pro- 
importel  bill  hook.   j,ggg  ^^y  g^  qj^  ^^,\[\^  exceeding 

slowness  or  may  even  be  entirely  suppressed.  Wounds  on 
the  lower  side,  shedding  water  more  readily,  are  less 
dangerous  than  those  on  the  upper  side  of  limbs. 

In  general,  the  fewer  and  the  smaller  in  extent  the  wounds 


Fig.  27.  —  An  example  of  proper  prun- 
ing, hut  with  the  wo  1(1  left  undressed. 


iterial  to  take 


Fig.  28. 


98 


General  Care  of  Trees 


and  the  more  they  lie  in  the  length  direction  of  the  stem, 
the  more  readily  are  they  co\ered;  i.e.,  the  more  live  cam- 
bium borders  them  sideways,  the  more  acti\e  the  foliage 
above  the  wound,  and  the  more  directly  the  repairing  cam- 
bium is  fed. 

The  severity  with  which  a  tree  may  be  pruned  depends, 
then,  mainly  on  its  capacity  to  cover  the  wounds  in  a  reason- 
able time;  and  since  this  is  a  result  of  food  elaboration,  it 
depends  on  the  growth  conditions  of  the  tree.  Therefore, 
the  tree  surgeon,  like  the  surgeon  in  the  hospital,  must 
consider  the  condition  of  the  patient.  The  jiruning  may 
be  executed  in  the  most  careful  and  aj^proved  manner,  and 
yet  the  result  may  be  disastrous  if  the  vitality  of  the  .fee  is 
not  equal  to  the  task  of  repair.  If  the  pruning  were  accom- 
panied by  attention  to  the  vigor  of  the  tree  in  imi)roving  its 
chances  for  nutrition,  results  would  more  often  be  satis- 
factory. Hence,  if  you  prune  heavily,  do  what  you  would 
expect  to  do  with  a  human  being  that  has  an  operation  to 
undergo;  make  it  comfortable  and  keep  it  well  fed  in  order 
to  invigorate  its  constitution. 

Specific  Rules.     Pruning  of  ornamental  and  shade  trees 
is  practised,  then, 

(i)  to  remove  superfluous  and  injurious  parts, 

(2)  to  keep  the  trees  within  manageable  shape  and  limits, 

(3)  to  train  the  tree  to  desirable  form, 

(4)  to  modify  the  vigor  of  the  tree. 

Pruning  for  Balance.  The  first  pruning  is  to  be  done  at 
the  time  of  planting,  when  it  is  needful  lo  restore  the  balance 
between  the  branch  system  and  the  root  system,  the  latter 
often  having  been  curtailed  in  the  operation  of  transplanting 
the  tree.  First,  all  injured  roots  need  attention.  Broken 
ones  must  be  cut  with  a  sharp,  smooth  draw  cut,  in  such  a 
manner  that  the  face  is  on  the  lower  side,  so  that  from  it 


Pruning  for  Balance 


99 


Fig.  2i>  --  Pruning  axe. 


new  fibrils  may  form  in  the  natural  direction.  Bruised 
roots,  if  too  much  lacerated  to  promise  ready  healing,  are 
also  better  removed,  since  they  may  otherwise  become 
smarting  points  for  rot.  If  they  cannot  be  dispensed  with 
without  too  much  loss  to  the 
tree  their  treatment  may  fol- 
low the  prescription  for  treat- 
ing wounds  in  general  (see 
page  89). 

Next  comes  the  trimming 
back  of  the  head  to  balance 
with  the  root  system,  keeping  in  mind  in  the  choice  of  parts 
to  be  removed  the  height  from  the  ground  at  which  it  is 
desired  to  start  the  crown. 

Injured  or  misshapen  parts  are,  of  course,  the  first  to  be 
subjected  to  the  knife.  Next  a  heading  in  of  the  t'ps  of 
spindling  branches  may  suffice,  with  due  reference  tc  .wsir- 
able  shape  of  the  crown.  Finally,  if  this  seems  insufficient, 
whole  branches  may  be  entirely  removed  by  cutting  them 
out  close  to  the  .  ,m.  When  it  seems  undesirable  to  use 
the  knife,  the  balance  may  be  attained  by  breaking  out  buds, 
and  this  is  the  preferable  method,  especially  in  conifers,  as 
the  knife  is  apt  to  spoil  their  form. 

If,  in  the  planted  tree,  balance  between  the  root  system 
and  crown  system  has  been  disturbed,  as  may  be  occasioned 

by    the    loss   of   roots   through 

grading,  the  same  operation  of 

balancing  the  crown  is  needed, 

always  keeping    in    mind    that 

the  tree  will,   unaided,   restore 

the  balance,  but  without  reference  to  its  appearance;  hence 

it  is  desirable  to  anticipate  the  natural  process. 

The  need  of  pruning  for  balance  when  part  of  the  root 


Fig.  30.  —  Brush  axe. 


too 


General  Care  of  Trees 


( j 


system  is  killetl  by  winter  cold  has  been  discussed  on  page 
67,  where  injuries  by  frost  are  described. 

Pruning  for  Form.    The  removal  of  dead  and  broken 

branches  and  the  smoothing  and  proper  dressing  of  badly 

made  wounds  is,  of  course,  the  first  concern  of  the  pruner. 

The  removal  of  green  branches  has  usually  for  its  object 

the  regulation  of  the  form,  in  order  to  favor  invigoration, 

or  new    formation   in   other    parts. 
Every  branch  or  twig  cut  produces 
a  change  in  the  development  of  other 
branches  or  twigs,  because  these  now 
enjoy  different  light,  food,  and  water- 
supply.    The  skilful  pruner  keeps  in 
mind,  therefore,  what  new  develop- 
ment  will   be    induced    by   cutting 
away  branches,  and  cuts  accordingly, 
either  to  strengthen  a  weaker  mem- 
ber by  removal  of  a  stronger,  or  to 
-  "   •  h  nin  "    ^^^^^    ^  stronger   one   by    subduing 
'double   edged*  pmnmg    superfluous  feeders,   favoring  either 
»^^-  the  leaders  by  the  removal  of  side 

branches,  or  inducing  the  spread  and  compacting  of  the 
crown  by  heading  back  the  leaders.  And,  in  pruning  for 
form,  he  keeps  in  mind  that  the  heading  in  of  young  shoots 
tends  to  develop  dormant  buds;  that  the  tendency  of  most 
species  is  to  develop  the  uppermost  buds  rather  than  those 
at  the  base  of  the  shoot;  that  heavy  pruning  at  the  top 
tends  to  invigorate  and  produce  better  development  of  the 
lower  portions,  and  vice  versa. 

Of  superfluous  parts  to  be  removed  are  the  water-sprouts 
or  suckers,  for,  as  their  very  name  indicates,  they  are  rob- 
bing other  branches  of  food  materials.  Water-sprouts  are 
branchlets,  arising  from  adventitious  buds  out  of  regular 


Fig. 


Pruning  for  Form 


lOI 


» 


Fio.  ,^2.  —  An  example  of  correct 
pruning,  well  healc'l,  but  with 
water-sprouts  developing. 


order,  along  the  trunk  and  branches,  whenever  the  equilib- 
rium in  feeding  conditions  is  disturbed  and  has  to  be  ad- 
justed, as,  for  instance,  when 
the  tree  has  been  heavily 
pruned,  or  .vhcn  soil  or  light 
conditions  have  been  changeti. 
Although  they  are  not  neces- 
sarily a  detriment,  it  is  evident 
that  they  interfere  with  the 
development  of  the  regular 
crown  and  are  therefore  best 
removed.  It  appears  that 
water-sprouts  arc  less  likely 
to  form  if  the  jjruning  is  done 
after  midsummer,  whc  a  re- 
adjustment oi  feeding  conditions  without  this  expedient 
seems  to  take  place. 

In  setting  new  trees,  or  in  the  case  of  plant  material  which 
has  not  been  trained  in  the  nursery  to  form  its  head  at  a 
desirable  height  from  the  ground,  this  should  be  attended 
to  first.  This  height  depends  ujjon  the  species  and  the 
object  for  which  the  planting  is  done.  In  specimen 
trees,  and  especially  trees  of  high  stature,  and  decidedly  in 
conifers,  the  crown  should  reach  down  almost  to  h"  '  .'', 
In  shade  and  street  trees  it  is  desirable  to  keep  it  en 

to  fifteen  feet  above  ground. 

In  street  trees  and  in  ornamental  [plantings,  where  several 
kinds  of  trees  stand  close  to  each  other,  the  pruning  knife  may 
be  used  to  advantage  in  preventing  an  undue  expansion 
of  crown.  If  this  is  done  at  regular  and  not  too  long  intervals, 
interference  between  neighboring  trees  and  the  conse- 
quent influence  on  each  other's  form  may  be  avoided  and  the 
operation  be  kept  within  the  limits  of  a  slight  trimming  back. 


Fio..y.--"  Tele- 
graph" tree 
pruner. 


102  General  Care  of  Trees 

In  i.lantwl  gr  ups  of  several  species,  the  fact  (referred  to  on 

pages  2  ^  and  7 ',)  must  be  kept  in  mind  that  the  ditTerent  species 

vary  in  regard  to  the  amount  of  light  which  they  require 

for  normal  development.     Some,  such  as  the  Beech,  Maple, 

and  Holly,  are  very  shade-end  unng  and  at 

rlhe  same  time  they  themstives  make  a  dense 
shade;  if  associated  with  such  light-needing 
species  as  the  Tulip  tree,  the  Ash,  Walnut, 
Cherrv,  and  many  others,  the  latter  will  be 
at  a  great  disadvantage:   the  shady  species 
crowding  them,  suppressing  their  branches, 
and  i)ossibly  shading    out   the  entire   tree, 
unless  the  shaders  are  ke'pt  within  bounds.    The  pruner 
must   study  these  relationshii)s,  must   protect  the  weaker, 
and  must  give  them  at  least  a  free  upper  crown,  if  he  desires 
to  keep  the  groups  in  harmonious  development.     \  little 
observation  will  soon  show  which  trees  are  relatively  weaker 
in  their  shade  endurance. 

The  most  difficult  task  of  the  pruner,  because  requinng 
the  most  judgment,  a  sense  of  fitness,  and  a  clear  concep- 
tion of  the  results  of  his  pruning,  is  that  of  training  trees 
to  desirable  outline.  This  refers,  of  course,  to  single  trees 
on  the  lawn,  where  the  form  and 
outline  of  the  crown  are  the 
important  features. 

The  "natural,"  symmetrical 
form,  typical  of  the  particular 
species,  is,  to  be  sure,  the  idcol 
one  to  be  attempted  in  general, 
certain  that  the  individual  tree  will,  if  left  alone,  develop 
this  form  Not  onlvdo  conditions  of  the  soil,  which  inilu- 
ence  the  root  development,  find  expression  in  the  shape  of 
the  crown,  leading  to  irregular  and  sometimes  undesirable 


Fig.  34.  —  "Paraxon"  double 
edged  pruning  saw. 

But  it  is  by  no  means 


Pruning  for  Form 


103 


IS 

'P 

tl- 
of 


shape,  but  accidents,  like  breakages  of  branches,  disturb 
the  normal  development  and  call  for  the  correcting  hand  of 
man.  Some  species,  as,  for  example,  the  Silver  Maple,  the 
Sycamore,  and  poplars,  have  a  straggling  habit,  developing 
so  irregularlv,  that  their  long  branches  are  apt  to  be  broken 
bv  ■  c  winds.  By  judicious  pruning  this  habit  can  be 
counteracted,  and  the  crown  be  made  more  compact  and 
wind -resistant. 

Too  often  old  neglectal  trees  have  lost  their  beauty  by 
neglect  in  earlier  pruning,  and  it  may  tax  the  ingenuity 
and  goofl  judgment  of  the  tree  doctor  to  restore  them  to 
desirable  shape  in  order  to  save  the  time  which  their 
replacement  would  require.  Usually  in  such  cases  general 
repairing  ami  invigorating  of  the  dilapidated  cripples  arc 
also  involved. 

As  regards  the  form  in  which  to  trim  a  "ee,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  know,  not  only  that  the  various  species  exhibit  vari- 
ou.;  forms  typical  of  themselves, 
but  also  that  their  form  varies 
with  age,  the  young  tree  being 
different  in  form  from  the  mid- 
dle-aged, and  this  again  differing 
from  the  old  tree.  It  is,  therefore,  impossible  to  give  general 
rules;  only  study  and  observation  in  the  field  can  develop  the 
eye  which  recognizes  typical  form. 

There  arc,  Iiowevcr,  two  very  clearly  distinguishable 
types,  namely,  that  of  the  conifers,  and  that  of  most  of  the 
broad-leaved  trees. 

The  conifer  type  is  characterized  by  the  pyramidal  shape 
of  the  crown,  the  main  axis  dc\cloi)ing  more  rapidly  than 
the  branches,  and  these  besetting  the  bole  to  its  base.  This 
beautifully  symmetrical  jn'ramid.  which  is  especially  typical 
of  spruces  and  firs,  lasts  from  twenty  to  forty  years  and 


EH 


Fig.  ,vS-  —Plain  one  edged 
pruning  si<\v. 


104 


General  Care  of  Trees 


I 


Fig.  36.  —  California    l«nv 
shaped  pruning  saw. 


sometimes  even  longer.  Then  the  lower  branches  begin  to 
die,  and,  when  the  tree  has  reached  its  full  height,  this  loss 
of  lower  branches  proceeds  more  rapidly,  and  a  period  of 
un.sightliness  must  be  passed  through.  Meanwhile,  the 
branches  of  the  ui)iJcr  crown  lengthen  and  the  crown 
broadens,  the  old  trees  of  most  species  having  a  very  ditler- 
ent  shape  from  the  younger  ones. 

It  is,  of  course,  desirable  to  retain  the  pyramidal  form  of 
the  conifers  as  long  as  possible,  to  trim  as  little  us  possible, 

and  then  ahvays  to  a  strong 
lower  bud,  which  will  then  ap- 
jjarently  continue  the  limb  as  if 
from  an  end-bud.  The  pruning 
of  lower  branches,  the  peculiar 
beauty  of  the  conifers,  should  be  deferred  until  it  becomes 
absolutely  necessary. 

In  conifers,  bud  j)runing  is  advantagcou.sly  practised  to 
preserve  perfect  shaj)e  and  prevent  undue  spreading.  This 
is  done  bv  cli])ping  olT  the  center-buds  from  any  shoot  that 
j^rojects  bevond  j^roper  limits.  This  method  will  also  tend 
to  improve  and  compact  the  form  of  such  looser  crown 
structures  as  the  upright  junipers. 

Should  a  leader  be  damaged  or  broken,  cut  it  back,  leav- 
ing a  short  stub  abo\e  some  strong  branch,  and  tie  the 
latter  up  (by  u.sing  the  stub)  as  nearly  as  may  be  into  ver- 
tical f)osition,  when  it  will  by  and  by  assume  the  leader- 
ship and  eventually  supjjlant  the  lost  one. 

In  the  broad-leaved  tri  the  tendency  with  most  species 
is  to  lose  the  juvenile  form,  in  which  the  main  axis  is  prom- 
inent, sooner  than  in  conifers;  the  branches  develop  more 
stoutly  and  the  crown  si)reads  earlier,  unless  by  crowding 
in  the  forest  or  in  planted  groups,  this  spread  is  prevented 
and  the  shaft  forced  to  grow  upward. 


Pruning  for  Form 


105 


Fig.     37. —  "Little      Giant' 
pruner  and  saw  combined. 


In  the  development  from  youth  to  old  age  there  can  be 
recognized  at  least  four  stages  of  development,  in  which 
the  form  varies. 

In  1864  a  Frenchman,  M.  A.  Des  Cars,  published  a  book- 
let on  the  methods  of  pruning  trees,'  which  is  still  essentially 
correct.  It  was  written  for  forest- 
ers, with  a  view  to  secure  the  pro- 
duction of  good  timber  rather 
than  for  use  in  ornamental  trees. 
The  author  develops  what  he 
considers  the  proper  form  for 
trees,  especially  oak  trees,  in  the  different  stages  of  their 
development.  He  also  devises  what  he  calls  a  dendro- 
scope,  a  piece  of  thin  cardboard,  in  which  a  hole  has 
been  cut  of  the  shape  which  the  outline  of  the  tree  crown 
is  to  assume.  A  fine  wire,  stretched  from  base  to  top  of  the 
whole,  serves  as  a  guide  in  adjusting  the  dendroscope  oppo- 
site the  bole  of  the  tree  in  front  of  the  eye.  By  this  little 
device  the  pruner  is  aided  in  determining  what  branches 
to  remove  in  order  to  secure  the  desired  symmetrical  form. 
While  we  would  hardly  recommend  any  strict  adherence  to 
the  directions  given  on  this  point  by  Des  Cars,  we  reproduce 
for  their  suggestiveness  the  summary  of  his  conclusions, 
together  with  the  dendroscope  and  the  examples  of  how  to 
shape  a  given  tree.     The  use  of  this  device  is  self-evident. 

I.  Young  Tree.  The  length  of  the  branchless  trunk 
should  equal  one-third  of  the  entire  height  of  the  tree.  The 
head  should  be  elongated,  ovoid  in  form,  with  the  center  of 
gravity  sufficiently  low  to  keep  the  tree  upright.  The  lower 
branches,  shortened  to  prevent  excessive  development  of  the 

'  A  Treatise  on  Pruning  Forest  and  Ornamental  Trees,  by  A.  Des  Cars. 
TranslateH  frnm  the  Seventh  Frenrh  Edition,  with  an  Introduction  by 
Chas.  S.  Sargent,  Boston,  1884. 


io6 


General  Care  of  Trees 


J.I , 

k 


leader,  should  afford  sufficient  leaf  surface  to  elaborate  the 
sap  necessary  to  insure  rapid  growth. 

2.  Middle- Aged  Tree.  The  trunk  should  equal  about 
two-fifths  of  the  entire  height  of  the  tree.  The  head  should 
be  a  shorter  ovoid  than  that  recommended  for  trees  of  the 
first  class.  A  vertical  branch  upright  on  the  trunk,  or  any 
part  of  the  trunk,  should  if  necessary  be  made  to  replace 
the  original  leader;  all  other  vertical  branches  should  be 
shortened  to  encourage  the  growth  of  the  leader.  If  a 
single  branch  cannot  be  converted  into  a  leader,  a  regular 
well-balanced  head  may  be  made  with  several  branches. 
As  the  tree  grows  some  of  the  lower  branches  should  be 
removed  to  increase  the  length  of  the  trunk.  Not  more 
than  three  or  four  branches  should  be  remo\ed  in  any  one 
year.  The  amputation  of  a  branch  should  be  carefully 
performed;  the  cut  should  be  made  perfectly  smooth  and 
rounded,  to  coincide  with  the  form  of  the  trunk,  thus  bring- 
ing its  whole  circumference  into  direct  communication  with 
the  leaves  by  means  of  the  layer  of  living  cells.  These 
distribute  the  descending  sap,  which  alone  forms  the  new 
wood  destined  in  time  to  cover  over  the  wound,  \\ounds 
made  in  this  manner  heal  in  a  short  time;  but,  to  preserve 
them  from  external  influences  which  induce  decay,  they 
should  be  covered  as  soon  as  made  with  a  coat  of  coal-tar. 
All  dead  or  dying  branches,  and  all  stumps  of  branches, 
should  be  cut  off,  and  the  wounds  treated  in  the  same  manner. 

3.  Old  Tree.  The  length  of  the  trunk  should  nearly 
equal  one-half  the  entire  height  of  the  tree.  All  decayed 
portions  of  the  tr(  e  shoukl  be  carefully  removed.  A  few  of 
the  lower  branches  may  be  removed  or  shortened. 

4.  Veteran.  The  tree  having  ceased  to  grow  the  head 
gradually  becomes  flat-topped.  Such  lower  branches  as 
might,  by  their  too  great  size,  injure  younger  trees  growing 


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Pruning  for  Form 


107 


Fig.  3q.  —  Combined  pruning 
saw  and  chisel. 


in  the  vicinity  should  be  removed.  Very  old  trees  should 
be  treated  in  the  manner  recommended  for  those  of  the 
third  class,  although  requiring  greater  care  and  judgment 
in  their  management. 

In  the  following  brief  instructions  as  to  procedure  in  prun- 
ing a  tree  to  form,  we  also  follow  the  advice  of  Des  Cars. 

First  select  a  vigorous  I'^ader,  if  no  natural  one  exists, 
i.e.,  a  branch  which  is  to  become  (or  remain)  the  main  axis; 
any  almost  vertical  branch  near  the  top  may  be  taken.  The 
original  leader  may  be  discarded  if  not  desirable,  and  a  lat- 
eral branch  substituted,  which  will  soon  straighten  up,  if 
the  growth  of  the  new  leader  is  stimulated  in  this  (as  shown 
before)  by  tying  it  into  upright 
position  with  withes  attached 
to  the  base  of  the  original  leader 
or  of  some  other  branch.  If 
there  is  no  serviceable  leader  to 
be  found,  two  or  three  or  more  branches  should  be  pre- 
served to  form  a  compact  head.  A  forking  leader  is  rather 
to  be  discouraged,  but  the  forking  of  branchlets  at  their 
ends  is  to  be  encouraged  by  removing  all  branchlets  which 
assume  a  vertical  growth,  for  these  forks  give  to  the  tree  a 
more  natural  appearance,  and  by  dividing  the  flow  of  sap 
prevent  the  growth  of  too  vigorous  shoots,  which  might  in 
time  develop  into  supplementary  leaders  to  the  injury  to 
the  tree.  Altogether,  the  development  of  the  unnaturally 
strong  growth  of  any  individual  branch,  especially  at  the 
expense  of  the  leader  and  in  an  undesirable  direction 
(drooping  or  recurved),  is  to  be  checked  by  shortening. 

The  operation  of  pruning  should  begin  at  the  top  of  the 
tree,  both  for  the  sake  of  the  safety  of  the  operator  and  the 
better  opportunity  of  controlling  the  shape.  After  estab- 
''shing  the  leader  or  leaders,  the  main  branches  are  short- 


io8 


General  Care  of  Trees 


ened,  especially  those  inclined  to  compete  with  the  leaders 
or  to  assume  a  wrtical  position.  In  shortening  these,  the 
cut  should  be  made  at  the  point  at  which  they  begin  to 
assume  upright  positions,  and,  if  possible,  just  above  some 
secondary  ascending  branch  or  branches,  and  these  in  turn 
should  also  be  shortened,  just  above  one  of  their  secondary 
branches,  as  shown  in  the  accompanying  schematic  figure. 
In  other  words,  the  upper  branch  is  the  one  preferably  to 
be  removed.  Care  must  be  taken  to  leave  enough  branch- 
lets  to  insure  sufficient  food  elaboration  for  feeding  the  main 
branch.  This  is  especially  essential  in  old  trees.  The 
branches  left  are  significantly  called  "sap  lifters."  By 
their  development  they  will  gradually  outgrow  and  straighten 
the  angles  made  by  the  removal  of  their  competitors. 


Fig.  40.  —  "Victor"  tree-pruner. 

The  illustration  taken  from  Des  Cars  will  suffice,  without 
further  explanation,  to  show  how  properly  pruned  trees  may 
appear,  according  to  his  notion. 

Tools.  The  tools  to  be  used  in  pruning  are  of  impor- 
tance. The  axe  is  not  a  serviceable  tool  and  should  be  used 
only  in  the  rough  work,  such  as  the  first  cutting  back  of 
branches  which  are  aftcrv,  ard  to  be  taken  off  by  the  saw. 
A  fine-toothed,  narrow-bladed,  stiff  saw  is  in  most  cases 
the  best  tool.  Various  bow-shaped  saws  are  in  the  market, 
but  they  have  little  advantage  over  the  straight  blade  in 
skilful  hands.  Stiffness  is,  however,  an  important  quality, 
and  a  thin  blade  stretched  in  a  steel  frame  answers  best.  A 
double-edged  pruning  saw  on  a  long  handle  can  be  used  to 
advantage  only  for  medium-high  work.  Extension  ladders 
and  closer  approach  to  the  work  are  necessary  on  larger 


Pruning  Street  Trees 


109 


trees.     The  use  of  climbing  irons  should  be  avoided,  as 
well  as  other  methods  which  would  damage  the  bark.     A 
heavy  pruning  cleaver  for   medium-sized  twigs  and   prun- 
ing knives  and   shears  of  various  sha])cs  for   the  smaller 
twigs    are    useful.      For     the 
latter,   a  long   handled    chisel 
with  a   guide  (X'ictor  Pruner) 
in  practised  hands,  is  an  ex- 
cellent tool.     Chisel  and  ham- 
mer may  sometimes  be  nee<led 
to  smooth  cut  surfaces  and  to 
cut    out    rotten    wood.      For 
small   branches,    up  to   three- 
quarter  inch  diameter,  the  cut- 
ting shear   tree-pruncrs  either 
with  or  without  pole  and  rope 
are  serviceable,  various  forms 
being    on    the    market.     The 
main  point  to  look  out  for  is 
that    tlie   cutting    edges    pass 
close  past  each  other  and  that 
they  can  readily  be  kept  in  such  relation,  that  the  spring 
opening  the  blades  be  sufficiently  strong,  and  yet  not  too 
strong,  that  the  grips  are  noL  closing   up  too  closely,  and 
that  the  tool  be  kept  sharp.     Common  sheep  shears  answer 
for  light  trimming  as  well  as  any  other  more  fanciful  tool. 

Pruning  Street  Trees.  The  pruning  of  street  trees  should 
begin  early,  while  the  tree  is  still  young,  so  as  gradually  to 
secure  the  proper  form  —  a  well-defined  main  shaft  and  a 
symmetrical  crown  of  branches  starting  well  above  the  heads 
of  the  passers-by.  If  this  trimming  is  done  within  a  few 
years  after  planting  and  is  repeated  regularly  every  two  or 
three   years,    the   necessity   cf    removing   heavy   branches, 


Fig.  41.  —  "Waters'"  iree-pruners. 


no 


General  Care  of  Trees 


which  in  city  streets  is  ahvays  connected  with  difficulties, 
can  be  avoided;  moreover,  the  "heading  back"  of  heavy 
branches  mars  the  symmetry  and  beauty  of  the  tree  and  can 
only  be  considered  a  remedy  for  the  neglect  of  earlier  trim- 
ming. 

When  pruning  becomes  necessary  in  order  to  reduce  the 
crowding  of  neighbors,  it  is  better  to  cut  out  entire  branches 


Fig.  42.  —  Methods  of  corrert  pruning. 

than  to  trim  back  the  ends,  since  this  only  stimulates  the 
prwiuction  of  new  shoots,  which  soon  close  up  again.  "A 
skilful  operator  will  remove  one-third  or  more  of  the  branches 
of  a  thickly  set  tree  in  such  a  manner  that  the  ordinary 
observer  will  not  perceive  that  any  pruning  has  been  done, 
the  tree  looking  as  natural  in  its  ramifications  as  if  it  had 
not  been  disturbed." 

Pruning  for  Flowers.  Pruning  is  also  resorted  to  for  the 
purpose  of  stimulating  flowering  and  fruiting.  This  is  a 
special  subject  of  the  orchardist,  which  we  can  touch  only 
as  far  as  flowering  ornamental  trees  or  shrubs  are  concerned. 
When  flowers  are  the  object  for  which  the  tree  or  shrub  is 
planted,  the  pruner  must  have  knowledge  of  the  flowering 


Repairing  Damage 


III 


habit  of  the  tree  or  shrub,  namely,  whether  it  bears  flowers 
on  the  old  wood  or  on  the  new  wood  of  the  seuson  Most 
early  bloomers  develop  their  flow,r  buds  in  the  i)receding 
year:  the  flowers  are,  therefore,  borne  on  the  old  wood.  It 
is  evident  that  by  heading  back  the  last  year's  growth,  the 
bloom  will  be  diminished.  Such  species,  therefore  (like 
Amelanchier,  Aesculus,  Catalpa,  Cercis,  Crataegus,  Halesia, 
Magnolia,  Prunus,  Pyrus,  Robinia,  also  jjear  and  peach), 
should  be  pruned  after  the  flowers  are  past,  and  then  merely 
by  thinning  out  weakly,  misplaced,  and  imperfect  shoots, 
and  shortening  specially  lonj^  ones.  On  the  other  hand, 
species  which  bear  their  flowers  on  the  new  wood  of  the 
season  in  which  they  bloom  (generally  later  bloomers;) 
should  be  severely  headed  back  in  the  fall  or  spring,  if  it 
is  desired  to  increase  the  bloom. 

Generally  speaking,  severe  pruning  and  heading  back 
at  the  top  tends  to  reduce  flowering  and  to  increase  produc- 
tion of  wood,  since  thereby  the  water-supply  is  relatively 
increased.  Hence,  to  stimulate  flower  production,  the 
pruning  shoukl  be  rather  light  and  repeated  annually.  For 
t^e  same  reason,  a  dry  season  and  root  pruning  which 
decreases  water-supply,  stimulates  flowering. 

Repairing  Damage.  Besides  attention  to  the  newly-made 
wounds  in  the  operation  of  pruning,  there  is  frequently 
needed  a  helping  hand  hi  mending  neglected  wounds  and  in 
repairing  damage  due  to  va  jus  mutilations  of  the  bole, 
and  to  breakages  by  wind. 

In  walking  through  the  streets  and  parks  of  American 
cities  and  even  through  private  preserves,  the  observant 
tree  lover  often  comes  to  the  conclusion  that  the  Anicrican 
is  either  blind  or  sees  beauty  in  dissase,  for  malformations 
due  to  rot  and  neglect  are  common  everywhere. 

While  the  adage  "never  too  late  to  mend"   may  often 


112 


General  Care  of  Trees 


Ik 
Ft 


])racticMlly  be  untenable,  tliere  are  nevertheless  many  cases 
of  ne}^lect  where  a  skilful  surgeon  can  at  least  improve 
matters. 

All  stumps  left  from  improper  pruning  or  from  breakages 
of  branches  should,  of  course,  l.e  removed,  and  the  newly 
made  wounds,  as  well  as  neglects'  old  br  inch  wounds,  prop- 
erly treated.     ]f  the  rot  has  penetrated  into  the  trunk,  it  is 
well  to  gouge  out  as  much  rotten  wood  as  jxjssible,  then 
ai)ply  an  antiseptic,  such  as  the  Bordeaux  mixture  or  per- 
haps carbolineum  (a  mixture  of  heavy  coal-tar  oils),  which 
especially  if  ai)i)lied  hot,  will  not  only  kill  the  fungus  my- 
celium for  some  distance,  but 
also     exclude     air     and     new 
infection.     Then  cover  with  a 
hi.'y    coat    of    paint    or    tar. 
If  ihc  cavity  is  large,  jjlug  up 
with  wood  and  i>aint,  or  fill  up 
with    rabble    and    cement,    or 
with  cement  alone.    In  this  way 
the  trunk  of  a  stately  oak,  per- 
haps   a    thousand    years    old, 
which   had  been  hollowed  out 
by     decay,    was     restored     to 
stability,  the  cavity  being  built 
up    with     brick    and    cement, 
and     the  color  and   fissures  of 
the  bark  were  successfully  imi- 
tated. 

Mutilations  of  the  trunk  or 
bole  are  treated  in  a  manner 
similar  to  that  j^rescriberl  fur  neglected  branch  wounds. 
In  these  cases,  if  no  healthy  and  regular  callus  formation 
has  begun,  the  wound  should  be  trimmed  back  on  its  mar- 


Fi;;.  4;,. —  UrancU  holes  and  thc-ir 
"treatnient.  To  llie  riKtit  <i 
plug^fl  liranch  hole  satisfai- 
torily  healed;  to  the  left,  a 
simiiinr  hole  unireatcd,  giving 
entrance  to  rot. 


Repairing  Damage 


113 


gins  to  the  live  cnmbium   layer,   treated   antiseptically  as 
directed   above,   and    finally   i)ainte<l.     At    the   same   time 
the    tree   should   be  invigorated,  as  indi- 
cated  before,  by    soil   improvement   and 

pruning. 

If  a  fresh  wound,  made  by  any  accident, 
such  as  the  gnawing  of  a  horse,  be  at  once 
completely  covered  with  melted  tree  wax' 
so   -IS  to   keep   the   parts  below   soft  and 
moist,  and  proiecied   by  cl^.th   bundaps 
against  further  disturbances,  a  new  rind 
or   bark  will   develoj)   directly  from   the 
living  tissues,  without  the  callus  forma- 
tion   of    the    marginal    cambium.     The 
application   of    an    antiseptic,   like    Bor- 
deaux mixture,  before   the  wax  cover  is 
put  on,    may   also  be   useful  to  destroy 
fungus  spores.     Ra])id  growing  deciduous 
species,  if  girdled  or  peeled  in  the  earlier 

part  of  the  season  when  the  cambium  is 

fully   active,   will    resjjond    with    special 

readiness    to    such    treatment,    and    will 

close  a  peel  wound  in  the  first  year. 

If  the  tree  has  been  comi)letely  girdled,  or  if  it  cnul  1  not 

be   i)rotecled  at  once  as  described  above,   it   can  still  be 

saved   by  an  expert  or  skilful  grafter  through  the  process 

of  "bridging,"  described  as  follows. 

The  margin  of  the   wound   is  trimmed  smooth,   and  a 

number  of  scions,  freshly  cut  young  twigs  from  two  or  three 


Fir..  44.  —  Method  of 
hri(l(5in<4  a  wound 
with  freshly  cut 
young    twigs. 


I 


?i; 


'A  serviceable  tree  wa.x  is  made  by  melting  together  by  weight,  one  part 
tallow,  two  parts  bees'vax,  four  i.arts  rosin,  then  pouring  into  cold  water 
and  working  it  with  hands  (whiih  should  t«  greased)  until  it  becomes  the 
color  of  taffy  candy  and  (k■v^•lop^  a  grain. 


%I^ .: 


^  V 


v>;  \^ 


f'<^3 


F'IG.  4^.  ^ti(  r(-<lul  hridyini;  of  a  (  ral)  ajjpli-  by  ihe  use  of  only  two  scions. 
The  tree  had  been  i<)ni|i!ftely  gir(lle<i  by  mice,  hut  bore  a  full  crop  of 
fruit  a  year  after  tiie  rej^air. 


T14 


Repairing  Damage 


115 


years  old,  are  trimmed  to  appropriate  length  and  with 
wedge-shaped  ends  grafted  between  bark  and  wood  of  upper 
and  lower  margin,  side  by  side,  bridging  the  wound.  To 
keep  the  ends  of  the  scions  and  the  bark  in  place,  a  cloth 
bandage  is  applied  at  the  two  margins,  and  the  whole  — 
scions  and  all  —  is  covered  by  melted  tree  wax.  If  prop- 
erly done,  the  connection  of  upper  and  lower  portions  will 
be  re-established  and  the  damage  outgrown. 

Smaller  wounds  may  be  treated  in  the  same  way,  or  as 
prescribed  in  the  case  of  pruning  wounds.  In  every  such 
case  of  bridging,  care  should  be  taken  to  clean  and  cut  out 
all  decayed  wood,  dressing  the  edges  back  to  live  bark  and 
applying  the  antiseptic  tar  or  paint,  or  wax,  if  the  wound  is 
small  and  in  young  wood. 

As  it  will  have  appeared  from  our  discussions,  cutting 
into  the  wood  of  a  tree  does  not  injure  it  in  any  way,  except 
possibly  weakening  it  mechanically,  and  no  hesitation  may 
be  felt  in  removing  diseased  portions,  and,  where  it  appears 
necessary,  in  substituting  other  serviceable  material  for 
the  loss  of  substance. 

If  a  branch  is  partially  broken  out  of  its  crotch  or  socket, 
but  still  connected  with  the  main  trunk,  it  can  often  be 
healed  on  again,  by  putting  it  into  position,  after  applying 
an  antiseptic  to  the  wound,  bolting  it  securely  to  the  trunk, 
coating  the  scar  heavily  with  wax  or  paint,  and  heading  back, 
so  as  to  reduce  the  need  of  water  in  proportion  to   the 

injury. 

With  trees  which  are  liable  to  breaking  out  at  the  crotch, 
such  as  the  Silver  Maple  and  Elm  among  others,  it  is  wise 
to  prevent  such  breaking  by  bracing  them  in  time.  This 
should  always  be  done  by  the  use  of  bolts  rather  than  bands, 
for  with  the  growth  of  the  tree  the  bands  constrict  the  nat- 
ural  expansion,   obstructing   the   flow   of  water  and   food 


ii6 


General  Care  of  Trees 


materials,  and  in  lime  perhaps  causing  death.  Bolts  should 
be  used  with  large  washers  and  nuts,  and  possibly  with  a 
movable  chain  or  link  attachment  between  the  braced 
branches  to  allow  for  wind  motion. 

A  li\'ing  brace  may  also  be  made  by  grafting  an  existing 
branch,  if  one  can  be  found  young  enough  and  in  proper 
position,  into  the  branch  to  be  braced,  or  vice  versa.  This 
"ingrafting"  is  often  seen  in  nature  and  answers  well  the 
purpose  of  support. 

Treatment  of  Street  Trees.  Regarding  the  care  of  street 
trees  in  particular,  we  may  add  a  few  remarks  on  general 
policy. 

The  selection  of  suitable  kinds  —  and  that  implies  the 
removal,  more  or  less  rapidh',  of  unsuitable  ones  —  is  the 
first  care. 

The  proper  s|)acing  of  the  trees  is  the  next  care,  and  that 
implies  the  removal  of  such  as  are  interfering  with  or  crowd- 
ing those  which  are  selected  to  remain.  The  distance  for 
best  development  should  be  about  equal  to  the  height  of 
the  tree,  hence  the  width  should  \"ary  with  age,  or  else 
should  be  chosen  with  reference  to  the  ultimate  height  of 
the  tree.  As  a  rule,  thirty  to  forty  feet  will  make  a  linally 
accepted  distance. 

Trees  which  have  become  hopelessly  decrepit  and  unsym- 
metrical  should  be  removed  to  make  room  for  better  ones. 
This  may  be  done  gradually,  by  setting  new  ones  before 
removing  the  old  ones,  but  the  etTcct  of  the  older,  taller 
neighbors  upon  the  smaller  new  comers  should  be  kept  in 
mind,  and  a  species  should  be  chosen  which  can  bear  the 
shade. 

In  city  streets,  wh"re  the  natural  enemies  of  insects,  the 
birds,  are  largely  absent,  and  where  the  health  of  trees  is 
often   precarious,   and   conditions   are   favorable   to   insect 


Treatment  of  Street  Trees 


117 


damage,  systematic  warfare  should  be  waged  against  these 
pests,  the  means  of  which  are  discussed  in  the  next  chapter. 
In  street  trees  the  opportunity  for  mutilation  is  so  great 
and  the  neglect  so  usual,  that  the  tree  surgeon  will  often  be 
called  upon  to  exercise  his  knowledge  and  ingenuity  in  the 
direction  of  mending  old  damage. 

Walking  along  the  streets  of  any  city  one  will  find  from 
at  least  twenty-five  to  fifty  per  cent,  of  the  trees  in  a  dam- 
aged condition.  The  principal  cause  of  such  damage  is 
probably  the  gnawing  of  horses  ar''  the  careless  treatment 
of  passers-by.     '^  he  climbing  iron  ire  stringers  and  of 

careless  tree-i)runers  also  fretpien  .-ad  to  abrasions  of 
the  bark.  Guy  ropes  attached  to  tr  es  in  building  opera- 
tions are  a  frecjuent  cause  of  damage,  unless  i)roperly  pro- 
tected by  boards  in  such  a  manner  as  to  proi)erly  distribute 
the  pressure  and  prevent  laceration  and  bruising  of  the 
bark.  The  j)iling  of  stones  against  the  base  of  trees  with- 
out i)rotection  is  also  apt  to  result  m  bruises. 

The  proper  thing,  of  course,  is  to  abstain  entirely  from 
such  use  of  trees.  But  since  the  casual  damage  done  can 
hardly  be  avoidal  by  regulations,  }oung  trees,  at  least, 
should  be  protected  by  suitable  guards,  until  their  bark 
has  become  robust  and  less  likely  to  become  damaged. 

The  accompanying  illustrations,  showing  a  variety  of 
guards  as  used  in  various  cities  of  Europe  and  the  United 
States,  have  been  borrowed  from  a  Bulletin  of  Cornell 
University  Agricultural  Experiment  St.  "on,'  and  are  self- 
cx])lanatory. 

The  following  remarks  on  these  protecting  devices  arc 
taken  from  the  same  Bulletin. 

"  The  most  primitive  guard  in  use  is  a  handful  of  branches 

1  "Shadr  Trees"  by  VV.  A.  Murrill,  nullctin  205,  Cornell  University 
Agricultural  Exijerimenl  Station,  Itliaca,  N.  Y.,  u;02. 


B.-i>.  J.-. -..JIAJ^.^^^t 


li 


I 


ii8 


General  Care  of  Trees 


from  a  thorn  bush  arranged  somewhat  loosely  about  the 
tree  trunk  ...  as  on  the  streets  of  Fontainebleau.  The 
next  in  order  of  simplicity,  perhaps,  is  the  jacket  of  pine 
poles  seen  often  in  Berlin.  These  poles  are  fastened  to- 
gether by  means  of  wire  and  may  be  easily  removed  when 
desired.  They  are  cheap  and  efficient,  and  not  so  conspicuous 
as  the  wooden  bo.x  so  well  known  in  America.  In  Frank- 
furt, jacket  guards  for  young  trees  on  retired  streets  are  made 
of  willow  branches  woven  into  tall  tapering  basket-like  forms, 
quite  unique  in  appearance.  In  Bonn,  the  fme  old  Horse- 
chestnut  trees  of  Poppelsdorf  AUee  are  protected  in  situ- 
ations exposed  to  passing  vehicles  with  shafts  of  stone 
planted  about  the  tree  at  a  little  distance  from  its  base. 
These  shafts  are  columns  of  basalt,  brought  from  the  north 
bank  of  the  Rhine. 

"  In  Washington  and  many  other  cities,  the  most  common 
tree  guard  is  an  elongated  box  made  of  narrow  boards, 
which  encloses  the  stem  of  the  tree  up  to  a  distance  of  five 
feet  or  more  from  the  ground.  The  box  guard  is  easily 
made  and  very  efficient.  In  London,  the  young  trees  are 
protected  with  wire  netting,  which  is  removed  as  the  trees 
grow  older,  except  in  the  case  of  those  having  tender  bark; 
and  on  London  streets,  where  iron  guards  are  used,  the 
trunk  often  had  the  additional  protection  of  a  wire  covering. 

"  The  best  guards  are  made  of  iron,  and,  although  some- 
what expensive,  are  widely  used,  especially  in  Europe.  In 
Paris  and  London,  they  are  generally  employed;  in  Frank- 
furt and  Berlin,  they  are  used  on  the  busier  streets;  while 
in  Antwerp,  Bonn,  and  Cologne,  they  are  being  introduced 
with  the  trees  recently  planted.  Unless  city  trees  are  under 
municipal  control,  the  styles  of  iron  guards  are  likely  to  be 
very  varied  and  often  cheap  and  inefficie'**:.  In  Paris,  they 
are  contracted  for  by  weight  as  well  as  measurement  and 


il 


I 


Treatment  of  Street  Trees 


119 


Fig.  46. — Various  types  of  tree  guards  ami  grills,     (.\fter  Murrill,   from 
Cornell  L'nivi-rsily   Bulletin,   No.   205.) 

are  very  strong  and  durable.     The   Paris  guard  is  about 
seven  feet   high,  cylindrical  in  form,  and   constructed   in 


120 


General  C;.re  of  Trees 


i 


two  parts,  the  iron  slats  being  riveted  to  semi-circles  of  iron. 
It  is  fastened  to  the  tree  support  at  the  top  and  to  the  grill 
at  its  base,  or,  in  the  absence  of  the  grill,  it  is  loosely  fixed 
in  the  earth.  This  style  of  guard  has  been  adopted  in  many 
parts  of  luirope. 

"In  America,  combinations  of  iron  rods  and  heavy  wire 
netting  are  frecpienlly  seen,  while  it  is  not  uncommon  to 
use  rather  low  iron  guards  and  cover  the  trunk  above  the 
guard  with  ordinary  wire  netting.  In  Frankfurt,  the  base 
of  the  tree  is  often  protected  by  a  i)crforated  cylinder  of 
sheet-iron  set  on  short  legs,  and  above  this  is  rather  stout, 
closely  woven  wire. 

"All  guards  of  whatever  kind  shoukl  be  fastened  securely 
to  the  t.ce  in  such  a  way  that  no  injury  will  result  from 
rubbing;  and,  as  the  trees  grow  larger,  care  shoukl  be  taken 
to  loosen  and  enlarge  the  guards  as  the  trees  recpiire.  Neg- 
lect in  this  matter  has  occasioned  the  death  of  (|uite  a  num- 
ber of  shade  trees. 

"  Grills  are  designed  to  i)revent  the  tramjjling  of  the  soil 
about  the  base  of  the  tree  and  are  es])ecially  desirable  on 
street  corners  and  other  places  where  many  people  pass. 
On  ]:)aved  sidewalks,  where  the  tralTic  is  large  and  the  amount 
of  exjjosed  earth  at  a  minimum,  some  such  means  of  keej)- 
ing  the  soil  light  and  ])orous  may  be  considered  a  necessity. 
Grills  also  afford  an  excellent  means  of  watering  trees  dur- 
ings  periods  of  drought.     The  construction  of  the  grill  may 
be    readily    determined    by    examining    the    accompanying 
illustrations.     It  is  made  of  sections  of  iron  grating  which 
fit  together  about  the  tree  in  a  circular,  rectangular,  or  hex- 
agonal form  and  are  supi)orted  on  wooden  pegs  driven  into 
the  ground.     A  special  form  of  grill  is  sometimes  used  on 
very  busy  streets  which  extends  outward  beneath  the  side- 
walk, leaving  considerable  space  about  the  tree,  while,  being 


Care  of  the  Aged 


121 


covered  with  pavement,  it  permits  free  use  of  the  sidewa  k 
up  to  within  a  foot  of  the  tree  trunk.  Grills  are  regularly 
used  with  the  iron  guards  in  Paris,  Berlin,  and  London  m 
places  where  they  are  needed.  Their  use  in  many  other 
cities  would  greatly  improve  the  general  condition  of  street 

trees." 

In  later  vears  the  rapid  multiplication  df  electric  wire 
lines  has  introduced  new  dangers.  These,  and  the  pro- 
tective measures,  have  already  been  discussed  in  a  precedmg 

chapter  (page  71).  .         .  u        f 

Care  of  the  Aged.  As  we  have  seen,  there  is  no  mherent 
reason  in  tree  nature  why  a  tree  need  ever  die  of  old  age, 
for  all  its  living  parts  are  annually  renewed,  and,  indeed, 
there  are  specimens  of  various  species  extant  which  count 
their  age  bv  thousands  of  years.  Some  Dragon  Trees  on 
the  island  of  TencrifTe  are  estimated  at  over  5,000  years  of 
age,  and  some  of  our  Big  Trees  in  California  are,  more 
certainly,  over  half  that  age;  many  historical  trees  have  been 
known  for  500  to  1,000  years. 

Yet,  as  we  have  also  seen,  old  trees  experience  difficulties 
in  carrying  on  their  functions  and  in  resisting  the  insidious 
.ttacks  of  parasites.    When  their  vigor  is  impaired  by  unfav- 
orable changes  in  their  environment,  especiaUy  as  regards 
water-supply,  the  capacity  of  renewing  lost  parts  and  repair- 
ing damage  is  more  or  less  lost,  with  some  species  sooner  than 
others,  so  that  we  can  speak  of  short-lived  and  long-lived 
species.     Some  also  respond  more  readily  than  others  to 
the  pruning  knife,  especially  when  cutting  in  old  wood; 
those  known  as  good  sprouters  (see  page  26  and  Chapter 
VIII;  belong  to  the  first,  the  poor  sprouters  to  the  latter 
class.     This  knowledge  indicates  that  greater  care  in  the 
use  of  the  pruning  knife  must  be  exercised  in  old  age  with 
trees  of  this  clas..     While  an  old  oak  may  be  cut  back 


w 


122 


General  Care  of  Trees 


V  »* 


Fig.  47.  —  A  restored  aged  tree. 

Into  old  wood  with  a  '''•"  chance  of  replacing  the  branch 
system,  a  Beech  or  Horse-chestnut  or  Ash  may  refuse  to 


Quack  Medicines 


123 


react  to  such  treatment.     Especially  when  the  foliage  of  an 
old  tree  has  become  generally  slim,  caution  is  indicated  in 

pruning. 

On  the  other  hand,  improvement  of  soil  conditions  as 
regards  water-supply  will  invariably  show  good  results, 
and  when  by  this  means  the  old  trunk  has  been  brought  to 
more  vigor,  the  time  for  the  knife  has  come. 

Even  quite  dilapidated  ruins,  hollow  to  the  core,  have 
been  resuscitated  and  given  a  new  lease  of  life,  by  building 
up  with  brick  and  cement  the  stability  of  the  tree,  and  by 
applying  the  measures  of  invigoration  described  in  detail. 

Often  it  would  not  be  worth  while  to  preserve  the  disfig- 
ured ruin,  if  its  beauty  is  already  gone,  but  where  special 
value  is  placed  on  securing  an  old  landmark,  a  historical 
monument,  or  a  stately  veteran,  much  can  be  done  by  the 
simple  process  of  soil  improvement  and  pruning. 

Quack  Medicines.     All  kinds  of  prescriptions  which  are 
not  based  on  an  intelligent  knowledge  and  appreciation  of 
the  life  processes  of  the  plant  we  may  call  quack  medicines. 
Such  are  the  indiscriminate  scraping  of  the  bark,  painting 
it  with  lime  without  definite  reasons,  applications  of  fluids 
to  the  soil  without  knowledge  of  their  value  or  diagnosis 
of  their  needfulness,  boring  holes  into  the  tree  and  placing 
various  powders  or  concoctions  into  them.     This  last  pro- 
cedure practised  by  the  quacks  may  be  harmless  or  harmful, 
according  to  what  may  be  placed  in  the  hole,  but  is  mostly 
harmless.    While  it  may  not  be  impossible  to  drug  a  tree 
by   such   means,   securing   transfusion  through   the  body, 
this  field  of  medicine  is  so  far  undeveloped,  and  the  pre- 
scriptions of  the  quacks  have  not  proved  themselves  eflfec- 
tive. 


« 


i 


CHAPTER   VI 


CONTROL    OF   PAl^     ^.ITES 

K  have  seen  in  previous  chapters  the  character 
and  effect  of  parasitic  attacks  on  trees,  how 
they  are  recognized,  and  also  that  their  dam- 
age can  be  checked  and  reduced  to  a  large 
extent  by  the  mere  care  of  keeping  the  trees  in  vigor.  We 
are  now  to  consider  specific  methods  of  controlling  these 
fungus  and  insect  injuries. 

Fungus  Parasites.  The  fundamental  principle  in  com- 
bating fungus  attacks  is  to  prevent  the  infection  of  the  host 
plant  by  the  spores,  or  else  to  destroy  these  through  the 
application  of  antiseptics  or  poisons,  —  so-called  fungicides. 
But,  if  infection  has  already  taken  place,  the  spread  of  the 
disease  is  prevented  by  the  destruction  of  the  fruit-body 
of  tbp  fungus  when  formed,  thereby  reducing  the  crop  of 
seeds,  and  also  by  burning  the  litter  on  the  ground  in  which 
the  fungus  may  live  during  one  phase  of  its  development. 
Careful  pruning  and  painting  of  all  wounds  will  prevent 
the  location  and  sprouting  of  the  spores  of  fungi.  If  this 
has  been  neglected  or  delayed,  and  an  examination  (under 
the  magnifying  glass  or  microscope)  shows  that  the  mycelia 
of  fungi  are  already  developed,  the  parasite  may  still  be 
suffocated,  if  the  mycelium  has  not  progressed  too  far,  by 
applying  an  antiseptic,  like  carbolineum,  which,  especially 
if  hot,  will  penetrate  for  some  distance,  and  then  co\cring 
the  wound  with  a  heavy  coat  of  paint,  so  as  to  exclude  air 

124 


n 


Fungus  Parasites 


I2<> 


'1 


and  water.  Cutting  out  the  affected  parts  and  treating  the 
wound  as  prescribed  on  page  89,  so  that  a  healthy  callus 
may  form,  is  the  especial  rei.iedy  for  black-knot  and  other 
canker  diseases  on  branches. 

Fungi  which  attack  the  leaves  are  best  combated  by  the 
appUcation  of  poisons.  Like  the  painting  of  wounds  these 
applications  are  mainly  to  prevent  the  infection  by  kilhng 
the  spores  before  they  have  a  chance  of  sending  their  my- 
celia  into  the  tissues  of  the  host  plant.  It  is  therefore  essen- 
tial to  make  the  application  in  due  time,  namely,  before  the 
appearance  of  the  fungus  in  spring. 

Leaf  fungi  are,  as  a  rule,  not  very  injurious,  the  unsight- 
liness  which  they  cause  being  usually  the  most  objectionable 
result.  Nevertheless,  since  practicable  methods  are  now 
developed  of  preventing  them  by  fungicides,  which  can  be 
applied  at  the  same  time  as  the  insecticides,  it  is  worth 
while  to  use  them,  for  they  benefit  the  trees  in  every  way. 

The  best  fungicide  is  the  Bordeaux  mixture,  the  formula 
for  which  is:  — five  pounds  of  copper  sulphate  (blue  vit- 
riol, or  blue  stone,  ten  cents  per  pound),  dissolved  by  being 
suspended  in  a  piece  of  cheesecloth  or  a  coarse  bag  in  hot 
water;    five    pounds   of  fresh    (not    air-slacked)    "quick" 
lime,  freshly  and  slowly  slacked,  after  passing  through  a 
fine  wire   (30-inch)   strainer,  and  diluted  by   adding  little 
by  little  a  gaUon  of  water,  to  a  creamy  liquid  of  putty-like 
consistency,   free  from   grit.    These   two  liquid   mixtures, 
each  in  a  barrel  bv  itself,  are  now  diluted  with  twenty-four 
gallons  of  water  each.     They  are  then  sloxdy  mixed  by  being 
poured  simultaneously  into  a  fifty-gallon  cask.    This  is  the 
"five,  five,  fifty"  formula.    No  iron  or  tin  vessels  should  be 
used  in  preparing  this  mixture  and,  of  course,  care  should  be 
taken  not  to  burn  the  clothes  or  fingers  in  the  handling  of 
both  the  blue  stone  and  the  lime.    Thj  lime  is  added  to 


126 


Control  of  Parasites 


neutralize  the  acid  of  the  copper  sah,  which  would  injure 
the  foliage,  the  reaction  leaving  a  copper  hydrate,  which,  dis- 
solve! in  the  carbonic  acid  of  the  air.  is  the  active  principle 
in  the  fungicide.     This  solution  should  be  used  the  day  it 
is  i.rrpared,  and  before  using  should  be-  strained  to  avoid 
trouble  in  the  spraving  nozzle.     Since  the  Bordeaux  mixture 
is  a  disinfectant  so  useful  tliat  every  ganlener  or  owner  of 
trees  should  have  it  on  hand  and  use  it  freely,  it  will  save 
time  to  make  a  stock  solution  of  blue  stone  in  the  propor- 
tion of  one  pound  to  two  gallons  of  water,  when  two  and  a 
half  gallons  of  this  solution  will  be  required  to  make  a  barrel 
of  mixture.     The  lime  may  also  be  slacked  bcfo-ehand,  m 
the  proportion  of  two  iK)unds  to  one  gallon,  ]  -ovuhng  it  is 
kept  under  water  until  used.     In  this  condition  it  is  not 
casilv  measurcxl,  although  '"half  and  half"  will  make  about 
the  proper  miv-.re;  hut  it  is  well  to  apply  a  simple  test  to 
show  when  sutTicient  lime  has  be.n  addal  to  the  blue  stone. 
For  this  test   an  ounce  of  yellow   prussiate  ot   potash 
obtained  from  the  drug  store,  is  dissolved  in  hall  a  pint  of 
water-  if  a  few  drops  of  this,  added  to  the  Bordeaux  mix- 
ture produces  a  brown  color,  it  shows  that  not  enough  lime 
has  been  added.     A  simpler  test  is  to  hold  a  bright  knife 
blade  in  the  solution  for  a  minute  or  more:  if  it  comes  out 
copper  colored,  more  lime  is  to  be  added.     A  smaU  exce<s 
of  lime  does  no  harm.     Keep  the  solutions  covered  to  pre- 
vent   evaporation.     When    the    two    solutions    are    mixed 
they  should  be  used  within  twenty-four  hours;  separate,  they 
mav  be  kept  through  the  season. 

There  are  now  prepared  limes  in  the  market,  powdered 
or  partly  slacked,  which,  if  fresh,  are  more  etTcctive  and 

more  easily  handler!.  . 

Since  the  mixture  is  not  really  a  solution  but  an  emulsion, 
which  consists  of  minute  insoluble    particles  of    the  sub- 


Fungus  Parasites 


127 


stances  in  suspension,  it  is  essential  for  success  to  have  the 
mixture  carefully  made  as  prescribed  and  thoroughly  stirred 
up  before  using. 

For  plants  with  very  delicate  foli:  <•,  the  formula  may  be 
varied  to  "two,  two,  fifty."  A  number  of  other  combina- 
tions are  used  by  experts  for  specific  plants  and  purposes, 
but  the  one  given  will  sufTirc  for  general  practice. 

The  mixture  is  applied  in  a  mist-like  spray  (hence  the 
importance  of  avoiding  lumps  of  lime  in  the  mixture  by 
straining)  by  the  same  si)raying  apparatus  and  in  the  same 
manner  as  described  later  on  for  use  with  the  insecticides, 
and,  indeed,  the  addition  to  the  Bordeaux  mixture  of  f  ^ 
ounces  of  Paris  Cireen  (mixed  to  a  paste  in  water)  will  an.-  ve- 
to keep  away  botli  kinds  of  parasites. 

The  first  application  should  be  made  shortly  before,  or 
just  as  the  buds  open,  and  again  two  or  three  weeks  later. 
If  rainy  weather  prevails  —  washing  off  the  remedy  and 
encouraging  fungus  growth  —  a  third  application  may  be 

necessary. 

Indeed,  this  excellent  disinfectant  may  be  used  as  freely 
for  trees  as  listerine  or  ammonia  in  the  household,  bringing 
about  the  general  disinfection  of  branches,  trunks  and 
wounds  as  well  as  of  leaves,  and  even  the  roots  may  be  bene- 
fited. But  spraying  should  nc  er  be  applied  to  plants  hi 
(lower,  as  the  spray  is  almosi  sure  to  injure  the  blossom, 
and  it  should  preferably  not  be  done  in  rainy  weather,  as 
this  has  also  been  found  to  injure  foliage  and  fruit. 

As  many  of  these  fungi  pass  the  winter  either  in  or  on  old 
leaves,  the  burning  of  these  in  the  fall  or  early  spring  is  a 
means  of  keeping  them  in  check;  the  removal  of  the  litter, 
therefore,  although,  as  we  have  seen,  detrimental  to  soil 
conditions,  has  an  advantage  in  i.reveniing  fungus  and  insect 
development. 


128 


Control  of  Parasites 


In  a  previous  chapter  we  have  seen  how  to  deal  with  rot 
fungi  of  the  wood.  Prevention  is  the  only  remedy.  If 
once  established  the  fungi  which  produce  root  rot  are  as 
difficult  to  combat,  sometimes  indeed  impossible,  as  the  rot 
fungi  in  the  wood.  All  that  may  be  done,  if  a  tree  or  a  group 
is  infected,  is  to  isolate  it  by  digging  a  ditch  around  it,  in 
order  to  prevent  the  spread  of  the  disease,  making  sure 
that  the  ditch  is  deep  enough  and  so  located  as  to  inclose 
the  infected  area.  The  tree  should  then  be  removed  and 
the  roots  burned.  Possibly  an  application  of  Bordeaux 
mixture,  more  highly  concentrated  than  for  use  on  foliage, 
may  be  advantageously  applied.  The  rest  of  the  ground 
should  then  be  put  in  healthful  conditions  as  described  in 
the  previous  chapter. 

Insect  Parasites.  To  prevent  and  check  the  injuries 
of  insects,  as  of   fungi,  much  can  be   done   by  indirect 

means. 

It  is  easier  to  ward  off  an  attack  of  insects  or  to  make 
conditions  unfavorable  for  their  multiplication  than  to  destroy 
them  after  they  are  once  established.  Insects  thrive  on 
neglect;  the  rubbish  around  the  base  of  the  tree,  the  prun- 
ings  and  fallen  leaves  furnish  welcome  winter  quarters  to 
many,  and  the  uncultivated  soil  is  more  favorable  to  their 
development  than  that  which  is  frequently  stirred  and  dis- 
turbed. Attention  to  soil  conditions  and  surface  condi- 
tions is,  therefore,  of  value  even  in  this  direction.  The 
scraping  of  bark  to  reduce  hiding  places  for  the  wintering 
of  pupa?  and  eggs  is  also  an  indirect  measure,  but  unfortu- 
nately, as  we  have  seen,  may  breed  mischief  in  other  direc- 
tions, besides  making  the  boles  unsightly. 

By  keeping  the  trees  in  vigorous  condition,  the  results  of 
insect  depredations  can  be  minimized,  perhaps  in  the  case 
of  bark-beetles,  entirely  avoided;  and  by  encouraging  birds 


I 


Insect  Parasites 


129 


—  the  natural  enemies  of  preying  insects  — the  excessive 
development  of  the  pests  may  be  checked. 

When  we  speak  of  insect  pests  we  mean  an  excessive 
development  of  destructive  kinds,  for  it  will  probably  never 
be  possible  to  exterminate  them  entirely,  and  all  our  meas- 
ures can  have  in  view  only  a  partial  extirpation,  or  keeping 
them  in  check.     Under  natural  conditions  the  eciuilibrium 
between  the  forces  of  nature  is  disturbed  only  occasionally 
and  for  a  short  time;  an  excess  of  insects  preying  on  trees 
may  develop  without  a  corresponding  increase  in  their  en- 
emies, but,  if  not  interfered  with,  the  "boom"  is  quickly 
followal  by   a  "panic":   the  enemies  increase  and  over- 
development is  checked.     When  man  interferes,  his  methods 
sometimes  unwittingly  prevent  the  natural  decrease  or  reduc- 
tion of  the  pest. 

For  instance,  there  are  certain  fungus  diseases  attacking 
caterpillars,  and  parasitic  insects  laying  their  eggs  into  them. 
By  destroving  the  caterpillars  or  the  cocoons,  these  natural 
enemies  arc  destroyed  at  the  same  time,  so  that  the  very 
method  of  combating  it  favors  the  pest.  Properly,  there- 
fore, an  investigation  as  to  the  need  or  desirability  of  apply- 
ing remedies,  of  spending  energy  and  money,  should  precede 
the  attemi)t.  It  is  often  not  necessary  to  make  the  effort, 
although  in  our  "unnatural"  conditions  of  street  and  lawn 
trees,  the  reliance  on  such  assistance  by  nature  may  be 
misplaced. 

In  addition  to  the  enemies  in  the  animal  and  plant  world, 
there  are  inimical  weather  conditions,  which  may  hold  a 
developing  insect  pest  in  check.  For  exami)le,  early  frosts 
in  the  fall  may  kill  large  numbers,  very  severe  winter  frosts 
decimate  them,  while  rainy  seasons  and  wet,  open  winters 
are  also  inimical,  particularly  in  developing  fungus  diseases 
in  the  larvic. 


130 


Control  of  Parasites 


These  conditions,  to  be  sure,  are  not  under  control,  and 
the  practical  value  of  this  knowledge  applies  mainly  to  the 
forester,  with  whom  economy  is  a  first  consideration  and 
who  cannot  afford  preventive  measures  if  their  need  is  not 
surely  established. 

That  the  encouragement  of  the  enemies  m  the  bird  world 
can  be  successfully  used  for  ridding  "  locality  of  insect 
pests  was  proved  with  a  vengeance  by  the  city  of  Brooklyn, 
when  the  unusual  pest  of  "inch  worms"  in  the  early  seventies 
was  subdued  by  the  importation  of  the  common  EngUsh 
sparrow.  It  is  a  pity  that  the  common  sparrow  was 
selected  for  this  dutv,  as,  in  the  presence  of  the  lavish  waste 
of  grain  and  other  palatable  food  which  characterizes  the 
American  community  he  soon  prefers  this  easier  mode  of 
living.  But  there  arc,  outside  of  this  common  sparrow,  few 
insectivorous  birds  that  care  to  live  in  city  streets,  even  if 
the  small  bov  would  let  them.  In  the  parks  and  country 
places,  on  the  other  hand,  the  cuckoos,  thrushes,  nuthatches, 
chickadees,  wrens,  creepers,  vireos,  and  warblers  shoukl  be 
encouraged  by  providing  nesting  places  and  insuring  them 
peace.  In  fact,  as  almost  aU  birds  arc,  at  least  occasionaUy, 
insect  eaters,  csi)ccially  when  there  is  a  large  supply,  they 
are  all  helpful  in  combating  insect  pests. 

Unfortunately,  birds  may  also  take  the  useful  insects 
which  prey  on  the  depredators,  although  this  happens  rarely, 
and  the  most  prominent  of  these  useful  insects,  the  wasp- 
like ichneumons,  i)erhaps  always  escape.  These  wasp  Uke 
I)arasites,  as  well  as  the  rachina  flies,  lay  their  eggs  on  or  in 
the  cateri)illars  or  grubs,  their  larva>  dcvek)i)ing  within  the 
host,  which  they  sooner  or  later  kill,  either  before  or  after 
its  pupation.     Since  from  six  hundred  to  twelve  hundred 

parasites  may  develop  from  a  single  pupa  or  larva  of  the 

hosts,  the  destruction  of  these  would  certainly  be  the  oppo- 


n 


Civic  Cooperation 


131 


6 


site  of  beneficial.  It  is  only  due  to  the  protective  color 
scheme  of  the  caterpillars  that  some  escape  from  the  fate 
of  becoming  food  for  the  parasite  brood. 

Besides  these  parasitic  insects,  there  are  others  which 
eat  the  depredators  directly.  The  interesting  Mantis,  Rear- 
horse  or  Walking-stick,  is  one  of  these;  ants  and  spiders  are 
others,  which,  however,  even  more  than  the  birds,  do  not 
make  much  distinction  between  friend  and  foe.  The 
larvjE  of  the  tiger-beetles  {Cicindelidce)  and  "ground-beetles" 
(Carabidce),  on  the  other  hand,  with  some  other  beetle  larvae, 
are  more  useful  caterpiUar  hunters,  because  feeding  on 
specific  injurious  insects.  Among  the  most  important  are 
the  "lady-bugs"  {Coccinella),  whose  small-headed,  long- 
legged  larva,  of-  -  prettily  colored,  prey  especiaUy  on  plant- 
lice  and  sc    '  ts.     Quite  a  number  of  other   friends 

could  be  me  d. 

While  it  is  ..cu  to  know  these  friends,  it  is  in  most  cases 
impossible  to  rely  on  them  for  much  practical  help,  espe- 
ciaUy in  street  trees,  where  wholesale  methods  of  warfare 
become  necessary,  and  no  f^ne  distinctions  can  be  drawn, 
i.e.,  where  poison  is  used,  which  generaUy  kiUs  both  friend 

and  foe. 

Civic  Cooperation.  In  the  city,  unbalanced  conditions 
have  been  created  by  man  and  have  been  maintained  so 
long  that  insect  pests  have  the  best  chance  for  growing  con- 
tinuously worse,  unless  special  etTort  is  made  to  keep  them 
in  check.  Theoretically,  it  would  be  possible  by  a  supreme 
etTort  to  get  rid  of  aU  these  pests,  and  then  by  moderate 
attention  to  keep  them  subdued.  PracticaUy,  the  condi- 
tions for  securing  this  result  are  rarely  attainable;  especiaUy 
when  private  owners  do  not  faU  in  line  with  the  efforts  at 
extermination.  While  much  may  be  done  by  private  asso- 
ciated etTort,  there  are  always  some  persons  antagonistic  or 


132 


Control  of  Parasites 


indifferent  to  such  efforts,  and  as  long  as  a  few  breeding 
places  arc  maintained  by  private  indifference  or  lack  of 
public  spirit,  all  etTorts  can  be  only  partially  successful. 
Unless  laws  and  ordinances  compelling  ei'erybody  to  keep 
his  premises  free  fr:.iii  these  nuisances  are  passed  and  en- 
forced by  lines  aid  (jtherwise,  we  shall  always  have  these 
pests  with  us. 

In  Germany,  such  laws  of  general  ai)plication  and  ordi- 
nances for  given  localities,  esj^ecially  for  combati-g  insect 
pests  in  forests,  have  been  in  vogue  for  a  long  time.  It  is 
only  by  constant  vigilance  and  by  the  absolute  enforcement 
of  such  laws  that  the  Colorado  potato-beetle,  again  and 
again  import^-d,  has  been  kept  out  of  Prussia. 

Although  in  street  and  ornamental  plantings  the  methods 
of  combating  insects  .are  naturally  different  from  those 
which  are  employed  by  the  forester,  the  tree-warden  can, 
nevertheless,  be  greatly  benefited  by  knowing  those  of  his 
brother  arboriculturist  in  the  forest. 

The  forester,  being  chiefly  concerned  in  economic  prob- 
lems, considers  first  the  'question  of  economy  and  of  rela- 
tive cost;  he  must  balance  the  advantage  in  expenditure  for 
combating  an  enemy  with  the  saving  in  ultimate  revenue 
resulting  therefrom:  he  will,  therefore,  often  let  matters 
take  care  of  themselves  and  suffer  the  damage,  if  he  can  see 
that  it  is  not  too  serious.  The  tree-warden,  who  has  no 
economic  object  to  attain,  has  no  basis  for  calculating  what 
he  can  afford  to  pay  for  the  luxury  of  shade  and  beauty. 
Yet  as  he  will  want  to  avoid  any  unnecessary  expense,  he 
should  follow  the  same  line  of  reasoning  as  the  forester  in 
judging  of  the  necessity  and  method  of  combating  a  pest, 
although  he  may  come  to  a  different  decision.  Especially 
in  parks  and  large  country  estates  the  question  of  practi- 
cabilitv  mav  become  serious. 


General  Methods  of  Procedure  I33 

The  necessity  of  measures  against  insects  can  in  many 
cases  be  ascertained  by  timely  observation  and  trial  coUec- 
tions  as  mentioned  on  Uie  previous  page,  when  the  relative 
number  of  butterflies  in  the  summer,  or  of  cocoons,  egg 
masses  or  wintering  caterpillars  in  the  faU,  indicate  the  prob- 
ability of  next  year's  expectations.    Next,  an  mvestigation 
of  the  health  conditions  of  caterpiUars  and  cocoons  is  mdi- 
cated    for  if  at  least  fifty  per  cent,  are  found  diseased,  no 
measures  need  be  taken.    Signs  of  disease  are  sluggishness 
in  feeding  or  other  unusual  behavior  of  caterpillars,  although 
this  will  be  possible  for  only  an  expert  to  judge.    To  make 
sure    fifty  to  a  hundred  caterpiUars,  larvae,  pupae  or  eggs 
shoiild  be  collected,,  cut  open,  and  the  eggs  or  larvae  of 
parasites  found,  or  else  they  may  be  hatched  under  proper 
conditions.     These  investigations  require  some  skill  and 
entomological  knowledge  and  are,  therefore,  best  made  by  an 
expert.     Next,  the  observation  of  weather  conditions  per- 
mits a'judgment  as  to  the  likelihood  of  ordinary  or  extraordi- 
nary development.     If  the  winter  has  been  very  severe, 
or  else  open  and  wet,  or  if  early  or  late  frosts  are  likely  to 
have  damaged  the  wintering  caterpiUars,  there  may  be  no 
necessity  for  making  warfare. 

To  be  sure,  these  prognostications  require  knowledge  and 
judgment,  but  with  an  official  entomologist  in  almost  every 
state,  it  should  not  be  difficult  to  readily  secure  an  expert's 

opinion. 

General  Methods  of  Procedure.  When  it  becomes  neces- 
sary to  fight  a  pest,  there  are  four  general  methods  to  choose 
from:  namely,  searching  for  and  kiUing  the  insect  directly  in 
anyof  its  phases  of  development,  egg,  cocoon,  larva,  or  imago; 
preventing  it  from  reaching  its  feeding  or  breeding  place  by 
placing  impediments  in  the  way,  when  it  can  be  colkuced  and 
destroyed;  trapping  or  baiting  it;  or  lastly,  poisoning  its  food. 


134 


Control  of  Parasites 


Among  these  methods,  the  last  requires  the  least  knowl- 
edge, and,  if  properly  applied,  promises  the  surest  success. 
At  the  same  time,  it  is  practical  only  in  the  case  of  more  or 
less  isolated  trees  and  becomes  expensive  in  that  of  large 
specimens.  Nevertheless,  with  the  development  of  prac- 
tical apparatus  and  of  serviceable  poisons,  this  method  is 
now  so  well  tested,  and  demonstrated  as  practical  in  com- 
bating all  leaf-destroyers  on  street  and  lawn  trees  as  well 
as  in  orchards,  that  any  community  which  has  pride  in  its 
appearance  and  is  without  the  apparatus  for  applying  these 
insecticides,  must  be  considered  behind  the  times. 

The  orchardist,  especially,  who  is  not  provided  with  this 
means  of  keeping  his  trees  healthy  is  no  better  than  the 
farmer  without  a  cultivator,  and  may  even  be  considered  a 
public  nuisance. 

The  majority  of  the  injurious  larvae  which  feed  on  leaves 
are  biting  insects  and  eat  their  food,  hence  can  be  directly 
killed  by  poisoning  this;  the  sucking  insects,  which,  like 
plant-lice,  plant-bugs,  scale-insects  and  mites,  suck  the 
juices,  and  whose  digestive  organs  cannot  be  reached  by 
the  poison,  can,  nevertheless,  be  combated  by  its  use,  if 
they  are  directly  hit  by  ihe  poison,  so  that  their  soft  skins 
are  penetrated,  or  if  their  breathing  apparatus  is  clogged 
by  it,  or  if  they  are  othenvise  disabled  by  the  spray. 

There  are  quite  a  large  number  of  poisons  or  insecticides 
in  use,  each  having  some  advantages,  and  somf  being  prefer- 
able for  specific  use;  but,  on  the  whole,  for  general  practice, 
three  remedies  stand  out  as  jirceminently  effective  and 
acceptable,  namely,  the  arsenical  poisons,  the  kerosene 
emulsion,  and  hydrocyanic  acid  gas,  which  latter,  however, 
is  probably  rarely  practical  outside  the  orchard. 

Since  the  first-mentioned  poisons  are  injurious  to  plants 
as  well  as  animals,  caution  in  their  use  is  necessary;  they 


Biting  Insects 


135 


must  be  diluted  in  certain  proportions  with  other  substances, 
to  make  them  harmless  to  plants  and  yet  poisonous  enough 
to  kill  the  insects  which  eat  the  foliage  covered  by  it.     This 
is  not  difficuU,  since  the  insects  continue  eating  and  there- 
fore accumulating  the  poison,  which  is  distributed  in  small 
quantities.     It  may  be  added  that,  if  ordinary  precautions 
are  taken,  there  is  no  danger  to  man  fr  -  n  arsenical  poisons. 
Biting   Insects.     There   are   two   poisons  which   answer 
most  purposes  in  the  case  of  biting  insects,  —  Arsenate  of 
Copper  (Paris  Green)  and  Arsenate  of  Lead.     The  latter, 
although  acting  more  slowly,  is  probably  the  better  for  gen- 
eral use,  because  it  adheres  readily  to  the  leaves,  and  remains 
therefore  longer  effective,   reducing  the  need  of  repeated 
sprayings.     It    can    be    applied    in    considerable    quantity 
without  burning  the  foliage,  the  one  objection,  besides  the 
somewhat   higher  price,  being  the  difficulty  of  preparing 
the  mixture  for  use.     This  is  now  overcome  by  a  prepared 
paste,  sold  under  the  name  of  Disparene  and  costing  fifteen 
to  twenty-five  cents  per  pound,  which  needs  only  to  be 
stirred  into  water.' 

These  insecticides  are  best  applied,  like  the  Bordeaux 
mixture,  by  spraying,  and  are  preferably  applied  together 
with  it;  for,  if  the  Bordeaux  mixture  is  substituted  for  ordi- 
nary water  in  mixing  the  insecticide,  the  possibly  injurious 
etTects  on  the  foliage  of  the  Paris  Green  are  avoided. 

The  application  sliould  be  made  before  the  trees  show 
signs  of  serious  injury,  and  that  means  as  soon  as  the  leaves 
are  out,  and  they  should  be  kept  covered  with  the  poison 


I  To  be  obtained  from  the  Bowker  Fertilizer  Co.,  Boston,  Mass.,  who 
also  prepare  other  insecticides  and  fungicides.  Swift's  Arsenate  of  Lead  is 
also  Luaunendablc;  and  the  Vieeland  Chemic"!  Co.  of  Little  Falls,  X.  T., 
prepares  a  paste,  for  which  superior  quality  is  claimed,  at  eleven  to  thirteen 
cents  per  pound. 


136 


Control  of  Parasites 


m 


during  the  early  part  of  the  season.  This  may,  in  a  dry 
season,  be  effected  by  spraying  a  second  time  after  two 
weeks,  but  if  the  season  is  rainy  as  many  as  three  or  four 
appUc'ations  may  be  needed  before  the  first  of  July. 


Fig.  48.  —  Barrel  pump  for  spraying. 

Arsenate  of  Lead  mixture:  Dissolve  eleven  to  twelve 
ounces  of  acetate  of  lead  (sugar  of  lead),  costing  twelve  to 
fifteen  cents  per  i)ound,  in  four  quarts  of  hot  water  in  a 
wooden  pail,  and  four  ounces  of  arsenate  of  soda  (96  per 
cent,  pure),  twelve  to  fifteen  cents  per  pound,  in  two  quarts 
of  water.  For  use,  dilute  at  the  rate  of  four  to  six  pounds 
in  a  hundred  gallons  of  water,  the  larger  quantity  for  elm- 


Biting  Insects 


137 


Fig.  4g.  —  The  "Stott"  spray  nozzle. 


leaf  beetle  and   gipsy-moth,  the  smaUer  for  brown-tailed 
moth,  tussock-moth,  and  fall  web-worm. 

Paris  Gran  mixture:  One  pound  of  Paris  Green,  eighteen 
to  twenty  cents,  made  into  a  paste  with  warm  water  and 
stirred  into  one  hundred  to 
three  hundred    gallons  of 
water   or    Bordeaux   mi.\- 
ture,  is  a  safe  mixture,  the 
stronger  solution  being  for 
the  elm-beetle.    If  water  is 
used   the  addition  of  one  pound  of  milk  of  lime  is  recom- 
mended to  prevent  injury  to  foliage.     Fill  a  barrel  nearly 
full  of  air-slacked  lime,  fiU  entirely  with  water  and  let  it 
stand  until  settled;  the  clear  water  above  the  lime  is  the 
milk  of  lime;  or,  two  pounds  of  fresh  lime  to  one  pound  of 
Paris  Green,  slacked  in  the  usual   manner,  then    strained 
through  cheese  cloth  and  diluted   to  fill   a  pail,  may  be 

substituted. 

Paris  Green   (or  better,  if  attainable,  Scheele's  Green, 
because  cheaper  and  more  effective)  acts  more  quickly,  but 

is  also  more  dangerous  to  the 
foliage  than  is  the  Arsenate 
of  Lead,  although  the  addi- 
tion of  milk  of  lime  reduces 
the  injurious  effects.  Yet  it 
Fig.  so.  — "Bordeaux "spray nozzle,  requires  more  nicety  in  prep- 
aration and  use,  and  is  also  more  easily  wa.shed  ofT.  But, 
if  the  -Arsenate  of  Lead  is  not  readily  attainable,  Paris 
Green  (if  unadulterated)  is  a  sufficiently  satisfactory  all-round 

insecticide. 

Since  it  has  been  shown  that  insects  will  avoid  poisoned 
food  until  driven  to  it  by  hunger,  it  is  essential  to  extend  the 
spraying  to  all  parts  and  to  all  food  plants. 


«38 


Control  of  Parasites 


Fig.  si.  —  Triple  spray 
"Vermoral"  nozzle. 


To  have  the  spraying  proy)erly  and 
thoroughly  done  is  not  always  ea.sy, 
especially  with  large  trees  and  incom- 
plete api)aratus. 

For  private  grounds  of  limited  extent 
a  fifty-gallon  cask  or  tank  with  a 
strong,  double-acting  force  pump'  (the 
working  parts  of  bra.  and  the  valves 
also  of  metal),  having  an  air  cylinder 

of  one  and  a  half  inches  or  more,  and  a  stroke  of  five  inches 

or  more,  attached  to  the  top  or 

side  of  the  barrel,  mounted  on 

a  cart,  with  fifty  to  one  hundred 

feet  of  half-inch  white  cotton  or 

rubber  hose,  ladders  and  lifting 

poles   of   bamboo   or   quarter- 
inch  gas  pipe,  will  answer  well 

enough    for    apparatus.      The 

entire   outfit,   exclusive  of  the 

cart,  costs  between  $30  and  S40, 

the  pump   alone  costing   from 

Sio  to  $15.      A  barrel  pump, 

satisfactory  for  general  work  on 

small  places,  can  be   had   for 

$15,  and  a  bucket  pump,  which 

can  be  used  with  an  ordinary 

pail  or  bucket,  good  to  spray 

bushes   and    small    trees,  may 

be   had    for    from    S3    to   S7, 

including  rubber   hose   and   nozzle. 

The  most  im})ortant  feature  in  the  aijparatus  is  the  nozzle, 

'  Knapsack   pumps,   of  which   there  are   several   makes  in  the  market, 
are,  as  a  rule,  not  practical  for  tree  work. 


Fig,  52.  —  Bucket  pump  with 
tank  for  oil. 


Biting  Insects 


139 


which  must  throw  a  mist-like  spray  for  a  sufficient  distance. 
Of  the  many  nozzles  in  the  market  specially  designee!  for 
the  purpose,  the  Vermorel  and  the  McGowen  or  Bordeaux 
nozzles  seem  to  have  found  most  favor;  the  latter  is  perhaps 
the  best  for  general  use  in  trcc-spraying,  because,  although 
somewhat  coarser,  it  throws  t'lc  stream  further.     For  satis- 
factory   working    it    is 
necessary  to    keep  the 
solution  St  i  red  and  free 
from    coarse     particles 
which  clog  the  nozzle. 

A  common  wootJen 
pail  with  a  1 1 -inch  iron 
gas-pi{)e  put  through  the 
bottom,  which  should  be 
reenforccd,  and  with  20- 
mesh  iron  wire  cloth  at- 
tached half  way,  makes 
an  efficient  strainer. 

For    use     in    public 
parks    and    on    street 
trees,  a  steam-pump  ap- 
paratus, which  can  be 
had  at  from  S400  u  >- 
wards,  is  perhaps  pref- 
erable,   although    even 
here  the  hand-pump  apparatus  with  a  stronger  jjump,  larger 
cask  and  more  hose,  keeping  the  cost  within  $60,'  may  be 
still  sufficient  in  smaller  communities,  where  not  too  many 
trees  are  to  be  treated. 
It  would  lead  us  too  far  to  give  a  description  of  the  vari- 

>  The  very  complete  hand  apparatus  used  in  Worcester  and  Springfield, 
Mass.,  can  be  had  for  $125. 


Fig.  53.  —  Tank  sprayer. 


140 


Control  of  Par  I  itcs 


ous  forms  which  such  a{)[)aratus  mi^ht  fai  (      A  full  dis- 
cussion may  he  found  in  ihc  ^'carbooL  of  thi-  '  rj'.^l  Sfatcs 
Department  of  Agriculture  for  1S96,  and  in  othci   publica- 
tions, notably  of  the  State  Entomolojiists,  various  combina 
tions  arc  projK)std.' 

Since  the  spray  mixtures  are  very  corrosive,  the  ai>paratus 
siiould    hv    thoroughly  cleaned     immefjiately   after  u^^e  by 

forcing  pure  water    through    ii    and 
wiping  ofT  the  exposed  parts. 

Failures  in  results  from  spraying 
come  either  from  unsatisfactorv  a[)- 
paratus,  such  as  lack  of  an  agitator 
on  the  pump,  poor  nozzles  th  owing 
a  shower,  instead  of  a  mist,  insuffi- 
FiG.  54.  —  "Gem"  nozzle  cient  and   variable  pressure,  or  else 

unsatisfactory  application,  lack  of 
tlioroughness,  failure  to  choose  the  right  time  or  weather 
(wind  and  rain),  and  use  of  wrong  materials,  or  improperly 
mixed  ones. 

As  to  the  cost  of  spraying,  the  Entomologist  of  the  Depart- 
ment of  .\gricuUure  estimates  that,  after  a  proper  apparatu.s 
is  installed,  for  a  city  like  Brooklyn,  X.  Y.,  an  expenditure 
of  $4,000  to  85,000  woulfl  result  in  green  shade  trees  all 
through  the  summer,  and  this  expench'tnre  would  probabl; 
not  need  to  be  continued  annually,  lii  cost  must  neccs 
sarily  vary  according  to  the  number  and  size  of  trees  '<''  bt 
treated   and   to  other  circumstances,   rep  rted   cxperieiac- 

'  Reliable  dealers  in  spraying  machinery  arc:  Gould  Manufacturing  C 
Seneca  Falls,  X.  V.;  Field  Force  Punij)  C"  >.,  Elmira,  N.  \  ;  Sulnor  Pun; 
and  Well  Co.,  Richmond,  Va.;  Morrell   &  Morley,  Benton  Harbor,  Mich 
Deming  Co.,  Salem,  Ohio;  E.  C.  Brown  Co..  Rochester.  X.  V.:  Spraymoti 
Co.,  BufTalo,  X.   Y.,  and  London,  Canada;   Rwhester  Snray  Pump  Co., 
Rochester,  X.  Y.;  Friend  Mfg.  Co.,  Gasport,  X.   Y.;  Har>iie  Spray  Pump 
Mfg.  Co.,  Detroit,  Mich.;  W'm.  Stahl,  Quincy,  III. 


Sucking  Insects 


141 


^'*V*. 


showing  variatii  is  from  ten    ents  to  len  di   Urs  p*"    rec.' 

Of  the  trees  of  Siiringfield,  >  ass.,  16,000  were  spr     ed  at 

an  average  cost  of  twem  - 

nine  cents.     This  cost  w 

reduced    in    Sarat'    1,    f*  r 

5.667    trees    of    tw  nty     !■> 

eigb'y    fee*     in    height,     t( 

seventeen  and  ^^  /\^^'\^l  ^^^^  ^^  ^,.y,,^,,,r  .,r.y  no..ic. 
cents,  and  in  Bro()klyn   with 

steam  apparatus  for  i  <2  f-^os  u-  twelve  cents  per  tree, 
and  thi.  mav  be  till  lurther  -educwl  by  perfecting  the 
apparati  and  tht  organiza^on  With  hand  apparatus, 
the  cost  jr  spraving  trees  up  10  torty  fe  in  height  may  be 
a  -nany  cent  as  tht  re  are  fee:  in  heig;  but  after  that  it 
ir  reases      )rc  rapidly      th    he  height 


It  is  b 


^ practscabii  ior  eai  ii  t rce  owner  in  a  city,  town, 

•r  village    o  proN  de  h^  n^elf  with  a  spraying  outfit,  hi 
every  city,  tov    ,  or  ever     illae-    can  alTord  to  supply  a 
apparatus  wh.ti  would     ■    ^e       •  entire  community  and, 
ei  '-er  at  public  expense  t>i         cooperative  effort,  all  trees 
cousd  be      >rayed  cheaply,  an-l  in  a  few  years  the  insect 
.id  be  easy  to  take  care  of,  if  there  is  also  co 
exterminating  those  insects  which  cannot  ^ 
,jd  by  poison. 

Insects.  As  stated  before,  these  i>oisons  are 
mainly  with  those  biting  insects  which  devour 
1.  They  are  not  effective,  or  only  partially  so, 
le-insects,  plant-lice,  borers,  as  well  as  Curculios, 
ugs,  etc.,  and  all  other  kinds  that  suck  tbe  sap  of 
the  i  .ats.  These  are  best  reached  b\  a  kerosene  or  >aj) 
emulsion,  also  applied  by  spraying,  but  in  such  a  manner 
that  the  insect  is  struck,  for  they  act  by  contact. 

•  Reported  by  A.  H.  Kirkland  in  The  Shade  tree  Insert  Problem. 


question  v 
oi>erati  i: 
i      >ily  rt 

pt    -ti- 

w 
chi. 


142 


Control  of  Parasites 


i 


j 


For  the  application  of  any  of  these  mixtures  a  bright, 
sunny  day  should  be  chosen,  and  the  trees  should  be  dry. 
The  spraying  should  just  wet  the  plant  without  allowing 
the  liquid  to  run  down  the  trunk. 

The  keroseiw  emulsion  is  the  standard  mixture  for  this 
class  of  insects.  Half  a  pound  of  whale-oil  soap,  or  other 
soap,  is  grated  and  dissolved  in  one  gallon  of  boiling  water, 
and  is  immediately  added,  boiling  hot,  to  two  gallons  of 
kerosene,  pouring  in  slowly,  and  the  mixture  thoroughly 
agitated  for  ten  to  fifteen  minutes,  until  the  consistency  of 
cream  (with  an  increase  of  one-third  to  one-half  in  bulk)  is 
attained.  This  is  a  stock  solution,  which  will  keep  indefi- 
nitely, and  in  using  must  be  diluted,  adding  from  fifteen  to 
twenty  parts  of  water  for  soft-bodied  insects,  and  seven  to 
nine  parts  of  water  for  hard -bodied  larvae,  beetles,  and 
insects. 

There  is  some  danger  in  the  kerosene  emulsion,  if  not 
properly  made  and  if  carelessly  uscxl,  for  the  kerosene 
flowing  down  the  trunk  and  collecting  about  the  roots 
may  interfere  with  their  aeration  and  may  even  produce 
death,' 

The  whale-oil  soap  by  itself,  or  any  good  soap,  is  effective 
on  soft-bodied  insects  and  scales.  The  soap  should  be  made 
of  caustic  potash  rather  than  soda,  as  this  is  more  effective 
and  sprays  more  easily.  A  pound  of  soap  finely  divided 
and  dissolved  in  three  to  six  gallons  of  hot  water  is  about 
the  right  strength. 

A  decoction  of  tobacco  (one  jwund  of  tobacco  stems  to 
one  gallon  of  water,  steeped  for  two  or  three  hours  and 
strainH)  is  also  effective,  and  can  be  used  without  danger, 
like  the  soaps. 

'  A  nunihit  of  trees  were  killed  in  Itliaia  in  iqo.<  l)y  foolishly  applying 
pure  kerosene  to  the  bark  with  the  erroneous  notion  of  benefiting  them. 


143 


iiM 


144 


Control  of  Parasites 


Mechanical  Destruction  of  Insects.  A  large  number  of 
insects,  among  which  are  some  of  the  most  injurious,  can- 
not be  reached  by  insecticides,  and  even  with  those  which 
can  be  so  combated,  it  is  often  impracticable  to  attempt 
this  method.  \\  here  it  is  impossible  to  apply  the  poisons, 
or  also  in  connection  with  their  application,  mechanical 
means  of  destruction  may  be  emjjloyed.  This  is  usually 
best  done  when  tlic  insect  is  in  a  fjuiescent  stage  of  develop- 
ment, namely,  in  the  egg  or  pupa  state,  although  in  some 
cases  the  imago  or  larva  state  is  more  accessible. 

These  latter  can  also  occasionally  be  trajjped  and  baited. 
Motl.s,  for  instance,  can  be  trapped  by  strong  lights,  and 
special  traps  for  that  ])urpose  are  manufactured,  but,  aside 
from  the  fact  that  benelicial  insects  are  also  caught  without 
distinction,  these  trai)s  are  practicable  only  under  condi- 
tions which  rarely  j)revail  where  shade  or  ornamental  trees 
are  to  be  protected.' 

Baiting  by  confining  a  freshly  issued  female  under  a  sieve, 
when  many  males  will  be  attracted  and  can  be  captured, 
will  also  be  rarely  a  jjracticable  metho^'.  But  the  trapping 
of  caterpillars  by  the  use  of  bands  around  the  bole  of  the 
tree  is  quite  jiracticable  with  all  those  insects  which  are 
ascending  or  descending  the  trunks.  Such  bands  are  merely 
a  mechanical  barrier  to  the  progress  of  the  caterpillars, 
which  can  then  be  brushed  off  with  wire  brushes  and  burnt. 

The  simplest  band  is  one  of  cotton  batting,  eight  to  twelve 
inches  wide,  long  enougli  to  go  round  the  trunk  and  overlap 
two  inches.    Tliis  is  tied  tightly  around  the  trunk,  so  that 

'  Lately  a  gasoline  torih  has  hecn  j)lp(-e<l  in  the  market,  which  it  is  pro- 
posed to  make  etTettive  by  Ijoth  lij^hi  and  heat.  Its  merits  are  still  under 
investigation,  but  it  is  jjrobably  not  praitital  for  use  on  large  trees,  even  if 
the  heat  lould  l^e  50  regulated  as  to  kill  the  inseifs  and  not  the  cambium 
of  the  tree. 


L 


Mechanical  Destruction  of  Insects         145 

the  batting  can  be  turned  over  and  down  like  an  inverted 
.•tunnel,  which  forms  the  bar  to  the  ascending  caterpillars. 
The  caterpillars  collect  below  the  band  and  should,  from 
time  to  time,  be  gathered  and  killed.  A  band  of  tarred 
paper  may  be  substituted  for  the  cotton,  or  else  light  burlap 
(eight  ounce,  eight  to  ten  inches  wide).  These  devices 
are  not  very  sightly;  a  neat  metal  protector,  consisting  of  a 
brass  band  with  teeth  like  a  comb,  tacked  to  the  tree,  is  an 
improvement  upon  them,  as  regards  appearance.  Where 
the  bark  is  rough,  it  may  become  necessary  to  smooth  it, 
so  that  the  band  makes  a  tight  joint.  Where  a  large  num- 
ber of  trees  are  to  be  protected,  as  in  streets  and  parks,  it 
will  be  found  cheaper  to  use  a  band  made  of  a  sticky  sub- 
stance. For  this  purpose  there  are  several  preparations 
made  from  crude  petroleum;  a  German  one  sold  under  the 
name  "Raupenleim"  '  was  the  original  one,  an  American 
one  called  " Dendrolene,"  '  and  another,  "Tree-Tanglefoot," 
all  more  or  less  greasy,  smooth,  and  of  butter-like  consist- 
ency. The  last  mentioned  remains  effective  a  longer  time, 
because  it  does  not  dry,  but  it  is  apt  to  injure  the  bark  of 
young  trees,  hence  in  such  casco  it  should  be  applied  with  a 
protective  paper  band  und'-xneath. 

These  applications  are  nade,  after  having  smoothed  the 
bark,  three  to  six  inches  wide  and  a  quarter  of  an  inch  thick. 
There  are  devices  for  handlmg  these  substances  expeditiously, 
but  ordinarily  a  trowel  may  be  used.  The  bands  should  be 
placed  at  sufficient  height  to  avoid  disagreeable  accidents 
from  contact  with  passers-by.  Should  the  band  become  dry, 
it  will  have  to  be  renewed. 

These  coatings  can  also  be  used  to  advantage  to  keep 

•To  be  obtained  from  Bowker  Fertilizer  Co..  Boston;  Wm  Mengel 
Son,  New  York. 

*  To  be  obtained  from  Prof.  F.  L.  Nason,  New  Brunswick,  N.  J. 


J. 


tr*. 


\^ 


146 


Control  of  Parasites 


out  borers,  to  prevent  egg  masses  from  hatching,  and  to 
kill  scale  insects. 

The  insects  which  can  be  controlled  by  such  bands  are 
all  those  whose  caterjMllars  are  hatched  out  }>elow  the  region 
of  the  band,  but  it  is,  also  useful  with  those  which  wander, 
seeking  for  new  sui)i)lies  after  having  defoliated  one  tree. 

It  is,  of  course,  necessary  to  ajiply  the  band  in  season, 
before  the  caterpillars  begin  to  wander. 

The  application  of  a  lime  wash  (whitewash)  to  the  trunks, 
has  been  verv  freq'icntly  pracf'sed,  and  it  is  without  ques- 
tion a  good  protection  against  several  insect  pests,  es|)ecially 
scales.  It  acts  merely  as  a  repellant,  not  as  an  insecticide. 
But  the  unsightliness  should  rule  this  remedy  out  for  orna- 
mental trees,  ^\herever  other  methods  are  available.  If 
used  at  all,  the  addition  of  flowers  of  sul[)hur  '  (making 
bisulpiiide  of  lime),  or  else  the  addition  of  crude  carbolic 
acid  (one  pint  to  a  hundred  pounds  of  lime)  will  increase  its 

efficiency. 

Like  all  such  coalings,  the  lime  wash  must  be  renewed 
to  remain  effective,  since  it  is  washed  awa\"  by  rains. 

Borers  and  Bark-beetles.  \\  hile  there  are  many  ways  of 
combating  the  insects  which  attack  the  leaves  and  which 
live  within  reach,  the  various  borers  and  bark-beetles  are 
much  more  dilTicult  to  deal  with  since  they  are  liidden  from 
direct  access  during  much  of  their  life  and  especially  during 
their  dangerous  stage.  If  their  holes  can  be  found,  which 
is  not  always  easy,  the  injection  of  carbon  bisulphide  into 
the  tunnel  and  plugging  the  outlet  tight  with  "utty  or  hard 
soaj)  will  kill  them,  the  bisulphide  developin,,  a  gas  injurious 
to  the  boring  larva.     Or  else,  they  may  be  reached  by  a  wire 

'  Five  pounds  of  sulphur  and  five  pounds  of  linii-  t)oikil  together  in  a 
Mnali  (juauiiiy  of  waicr  until  ni>:^olvcil,  miking  a  bruwiiiah  liijuid,  to  \x 
diluted  in  a  hundred  gallons  of  water. 


Borers  and  Bark-beetles 


147 


run  into  the  hole,  or  the  worm  may  be  cut  out  and  the  scar 
treated  like  any  other  wound. 

In  any  case,  tedious  individual  treatment  is  necessary, 
there  being  no  wholesale  method.  Hence,  where  borers 
are  to  be  feared,  preventing  their  entrance  by  protective 
covers  is  the  preferable  method.  Against  the  larger  borers 
a  wire  mos<iuito  netting,  placed  aro'  nd  the  trunk  loosely, 
so  as  not  to  touch  the  bark,  set  into  the  ground  at  the  base 
and  tied  at  the  top,  prevents  the  beetles  from  laying  their 
eggs  either  under  the  bark  scales  or  in  a  gnawed  hole.  This 
device  also  prevents  beedes  in  the  trunk  from  emerging, 
leaving  them  to  die  without  chance  of  reproduction.  On 
branches,  tarred  paper  or  even  newspaper  will  answer  the 
same  purpose,  or  else  whitewash,  to  which  Paris  Green  has 
been  added,  can  be  thoroughly  apj)lied  with  a  knapeack 
pump  through  a  Vermorel  nozzle.  Hut  this  must  be  renewed 
every  week  or  two  until  the  middle  of  July,  when  the  danger 
from  flat-headed  borers  is  past.  Still  better  is  an  applica- 
tion of  dendrolene  or  "insect  lime",  which  keeps  effective 
for  the  season  if  applied  properly  at  the  right  time.  But 
all  these  measures  are  practically  undesirable,  and  even- 
tually removal  of  the  infected  tree  is  the  only  resort. 

The  most  insidious  and  least  amenable  to  remedies  are 
the  bark-beetles,  the  larvae  of  which,  minute  white  grubs, 
burrow  in  the  soft  wood  and  cambium  layer  under  the  bark, 
destroying  the  cambium;  and  since  several  broods  are  made 
during  the  same  season,  their  numerous  galleries  eventually 
girdle  and  kill  the  trees.  Little  round  shot-Iioles  show  the 
inlet  and  outlet  of  the  small  black  or  brown  beetle,  but 
when  the  broods  of  larva;  have  been  at  work  for  some  time, 
the  bark  is  loosened  and  can  be  peeled  off  without  resistance. 

Since  these  beetles  hardly  ever  attack  healthy  trees,  i)re- 
ferring  tliose  which  have  been  otherwise  weakened  or  under- 


148 


Control  of  Parasites 


fed,  the  main  remedy  is  not  to  allow  trees  to  get  into  such 
vulnerable  condition.  If  a  slight  infection  is  noticed  in 
time,  in  addition  to  promoting  the  general  vigor  of  the 
tree,  an  application  of  whitewash  with  Paris  Green  added, 
or  of  strong  whale-oil  soap  suds  with  a  little  crude  carbolic 
acid  added,  repeated  as  needful,  may  be  employed.  It  may 
also  be  possible  to  cut  out  small  infested  areas  of  wood,  and 
treat  them  antiseptically  hke  other  wounds.  This  has  been 
successfully  done  on  old  elms  at  Brussels. 

In  the  forestry  practice  of  Europe,  baiting  of  bark-beetles, 
which  are  specially  destructive  to  spruce  forests,  is  the  only 
practical  remedy  besides  clean  lumbering.  The  beetles 
thrive  most  readily  under  the  bark  of  the  freshly  felled  timber, 
and,  therefore,  barking  the  trees  immediately  after  felling, 
and  the  removal  or  burning  of  rubbish  is  practised.  In 
addition,  in  the  spring,  a  few  "trap  trees"  are  felled  or 
billets  laid  out  in  the  endangered  places,  on  which  the  beetles 
assemble  in  large  numbers  to  lay  their  eggs;  the  trap  trees 
can  then  be  removed  and  burned. 

If  the  pest  is  once  established,  nothing  can  be  done,  except 
to  cut  out  the  infested  trees  in  order  to  avoid  further  spread. 

Root  Destroyers.  The  root  pests— such  as  the  cut-worms, 
larvae  of  certain  moths;  the  wire-worms,  larvae  of  the  well- 
known  clicking-beetles;  root-Uce,  like  the  celebrated  Phyl- 
loxera, which  made  such  havoc  among  the  vineyards  of 
France,  and  other  plant-Uce,  which  feed  on  roots  either 
wholly  or  at  some  time  in  their  development  —  these  are 
more  to  be  feared  for  the  lawn  grass  and  other  tender  plants 
and  for  young  tree  seedlings,  than  for  older  trees,  although 
they  occasionally  injure  these  too.  Those  which  spend 
one  phase  in  the  open  (and  then  they  are  also  sometimes 
feeding  on  foliage,  as  the  clicking-beetles  and  lice)  may  be 
decimated  by  poison  or  by  collecting  during  that  phase. 


specific  Pests 


149 


Otherwise,  applications  of  hot  water,  which  does  not  injure 
the  roots,  is  recommended,  or  else  the  use  of  tobacco  dust, 
the  nicotine  of  which  leaches  into  the  soil  with  the  rains  and 
kills  at  least  the  plant-lice,  while  acting  at  the  same  time  as 
a  fertilizer.  This  ground  tobacco  is  best  placed  in  a  trench 
around  the  tree,  filling  it  liberally  and  re-covering  the 
trench. 

The  application  of  potash  fertilizers,  such  as  kainit,  or 
muriate  of  potash,  preferably  before  or  during  a  rain,  sown 
broadcast  or  worked  into  the  soil  (ten  pounds  of  kainit  to  a 
five  or  six  year  old  tree)  is  said  to  destroy  the  grubs  and  any 
insect  that  lives  in  the  soil.  At  least  the  tree  will  be  bene- 
fited by  the  application  and  so  invigorated  as  to  resist  the 
attacks,  not  only  of  this,  but  of  any  other  insect  pest. 

Specific  Pests.  Since  the  methods  of  combating  the  vari- 
ous insects  are  based  on  their  life  habits,  and  since  these 
diflfer  considerably,  it  is  necessary  to  specify  more  fully 
with  reference  to  particular  pests.  In  the  following  pages, 
therefore,  the  more  obnoxious  insects  are  more  systemat- 
ically treated  and  the  more  common  enemies  to  shade  trees 
are  briefly  described  as  far  as  needful;  and  the  methods  of 
controlling  them  are  briefly  given.  It  would  not  be  prac- 
ticable within  the  limits  of  this  book  to  give  more  than  the 
briefest  statements.  Those  interested  in  further  detail 
must  find  it  in  the  very  comprehensive  literature,  a  partial 
reference  list  to  which  is  found  on  page  375,  and  especially 
to  the  excellent  work  of  J.  B.  Smith,  "Economic  Entomol- 
ogy for  the  Farmer  and  Fruit-grower." 

The  insects  obnoxious  to  tree  growth  may  be  roughly 
classed  in  the  three  large  groups  of  bugs,  beetles,  and 
butterflies  (including  moths),  each  of  which  can  be  again 
subdivided  into  several  smaller  grou[)s  according  to  the 
character  of  the  insect  or  its  feeding  habit. 


150 


Control  of  Parasites 


r.  Bugs,  comitrising  a  number  of  insect  families  sep- 
arated in  slrict  classification  into  llcmiptcrd  (half-wings, 
partly  leathery),  Orthoplcra  (slraigiit  wings,  membra- 
naceous), etc. 

Here  belong  the  various  plant-lice,  bark-lice,  root-lice, 
mealy  bugs  and  scale-insccis,  also  trce-hoj^pers,  grass- 
hoj)i)crs,  and  cicadas;  a  large  number  of  species,  on  the 
whole  but  slightly  injurious  to  tree  life;  besides  some  of 
those  most  destructive  to  crops,  like  the  chinch-bug,  cab- 
bage-bug, squash-bug,  etc. 

Their  mischief  consists  in  sucking  the  sap  and  sometimes 
causing  gall-like  malformations  of  relatively  little  moment, 
although  they  can,  if  excessively  developed,  cause  the  death 
of  limbs  and  even  of  trees. 

Plant-lice  have  green  to  greenish-black,  flask-shaped 
bodies,  covered  with  a  soft,  i)owdery  bloom  or  wool,  win.-^ed 
or  unwinged;  wintering  in  the  egg;  hatching  as  vegetation 
begins  and  i)roducing  four  to  nine  generations  during  the 
summer.  They  suck  the  juices  of  tiie  foliage  and  twigs, 
and  some  produce  gall -like  swellings  on  the  new-grown  twigs 
of  conifers,  i)oi)lars,  etc.;  noteworthy  only  if  unusually 
developed. 

Spray  at  any  time  during  the  season  with  dilute  kerosene 
emulsion  (one  part  in  fifteen  parts  of  water),  or  with  tobacco 
decoction,  or  with  common  soaj)  solution  (one  pound  in 
eight  gallons). 

Bark-lire  and  Scales,  mostly  dull  yellow-brown  to  black, 
hemispherical,  globular,  or  convex  bodies,  the  "scales" 
formed  by  excretions,  the  males  winged,  the  wingless  females 
attached  to  the  smooth-barked  twigs  or  leaves,  from  which 
they  suck  the  sai).  anr!  where  they  winter,  resuming  their 
feeding  and  the  laying  of  eggs  in  s[)ring. 

Besides    various    fruit    trees,    dogwoods,    mountain-ash, 


Specific  Pests 


J51 


hawthorns,   ])0[)lars,  ornamental  cherries,   i>luins,  currants 
and  '■   'rcas  are  infested  by  the  San  Jose  scali-. 

They  are  very  |)r(Mlucti>e,  breeding  in  July  and  December, 
and  sjjreading  readily,  as  in  the  case  of  the  well-known  cot- 
tonv  cushion  scale  on  orange  trees  in  California;  tlie  white 
pine  scale  and  the  cottony  ma])le  scale,  wliich  occur  also  on 
other  species,  are  perhaps  the  most  common  and  are  recog- 
nized by  their  while,  waxy,  llulTy  excretions. 

Judicious  ))runing  or  trimming  in  winter  or  mechanical 
di.slodgment  is  tlie  most  jiractical  remedy.  Sj)raying  with 
kerosene  emulsion  enforced  by  soap  suds  (three  quarts 
of  kerosene  emal>iori  and  one  ])ound  of  whale-oil  soap 
dissolved  in  eight  gallons  of  water)  during  the  winter  or  in 
early  si)ring  before  the  proter  live  scales  of  tlie  new  genera- 
tion are  formed  is  next  be>^i ;  the  insect  must  be  hit  by  the 
apjjlication,  the  spraying  .should  be  thorough,  and  should  be 
rei)cated  at  least  once.  A  lime-sulphur  wa.sh,  or  else  ".scale- 
cide,"  a  petroleum  ]u\;paration,  which  is  more  easily  iiandled, 
.lay  also  be  applied  satisfactorily. 

Rool-lice,  in  .so  far  as  they  are  not  merely  phases  of  the 
before-mentioned,  are  also  scaly,  covered  with  a  whitish 
excretion;  remedies  discussed  on  page  148. 

Grasshoppers.  Some  of  llie  "kalydids"  or  long-horned 
grasshoppers  become  in  some  .sea.sons  obnoxious  by  feeding 
on  foliage,  and  laying  their  eggs  in  young  twigs  and  leaves, 
causing  them  to  die. 

Spraying,  collecting,  and  burning  the  litter  (fallen  twigs) 
may  be  practii;i.d,  if  chickens  and  turkeys  do  not  keep  them 
in  check. 

Walking-sticks  and  the  peculiar  "Praying-mantis''  or 
Renrhorse  feed  on  the  foliage  of  the  trees,  but  are  rarely  im- 
portant. If  necessary,  spray,  or  burn  the  rubbish  in  which 
the  eggs  hatch. 


152 


Control  of  Parasites 


^i« 


ill 


Cicada  or  Seventeen-year  Locust,  when  it  emerges  from  its 
long  underground  life,  becomes  troublesome  by  laying  eggs 
in  twigs  and  branches,  causing  their  death,  and  may  become 
seriously  injurious  to  young  trees,  in  old  trees  causing  only 
unsightliness. 

The  sparrow  is  the  best  protection,  otherwise  only  mechan- 
ical destruction  is  available. 

2.  Beetles  or  Coleoptera  have  horny  wings  which  form 
a  cover  over  the  posterior,  folded  membranaceous  wings. 
Of  the  sixty-one  families  of  beetles,  seven  contain  species 
doing  considerable  damage,  namely  the  snout-beetles  or 
weevils,  the  bark-beetles,  the  long-horned,  round-headed 
wood-borers,  the  flat-headed  wood-borers,  the  clicking- 
beetles,  the  cockchafers,  and  the  leaf-beetles.  Besides 
these  there  are  some  minor  pests  found  in  other  families. 
In  most  cases,  it  is  the  larvae  or  "grubs"  which  do  the 
damage,  although  occasionally  the  beetles  themselves  are 
the  culprits. 

Weevils  or  Snout-beetles  or  Curculios  are  mostly  black, 
brown,  or  gray  beetles,  easily  recognized  by  their  beak-like 
mouth-parts.  A  very  large  number  of  species  do  damage 
of  the  most  varied  kine ! .  In  some  cases  the  beetles  as  well 
as  the  larvae  feed  on  the  leaves;  the  white  or  yellowish  larvae 
found  in  the  chestnuts  a  id  hickory  nuts,  a  well  as  in  apples 
and  other  fruit  an  !  in  peas,  belong  to  this  family,  while 
the  plum  curculio  feeds  as  a  beetle  on  buds  and  leaves,  and 
as  a  larva  on  the  fruit;  some  bore  into  the  young  shoots  to  lay 
their  eggs,  causing  them  to  die  and  fall,  others  into  the  pith 
of  older  branchlets;  some  lay  their  eggs  in  the  midrib  of 
leaves,  causing  their  fall;  and  some  roll  the  leaves  into  pecu- 
liar shape,  eithf^r  singly  or  in  bunches,  causing  their  death; 
the  larva;  of  others,  again,  injure  the  roots;  and  others  be- 
have like  bark-beetles,  destroying  portions  of  the  cambium, 


specific  Pests 


153 


or  even  like  wood-borers,  penetrating  into  the  interior. 
They  are  especially  obnoxious  in  conifers  and  more  in 
younger  than  in  older  trees.  The  most  important  one 
damaging  trees  is  perhaps  the  — 

White  Pine  Weevil;  it  attacks  the  leading  shoot  in  young 
trees,  sometimes  year  after  year,  causing  its  death  and  lead- 
ing to  deformity  by  multiplying  the  leaders,  one  or  more 
side  branches  taking  up  the  leadership. 

A  protective  cover  of  soap  wash  (one  pound  to  a  hundred 
and  fifty  gallons  of  water),  to  which  Paris  Green  is  added, 
may  keep  the  weevil  off.  Infested  branches  should  be  cut 
off  and  burned  and  the  formation  of  a  singlr  i)roper  leader 
regulated  by  proper  pruning.  In  plantations,  baiting  and 
collecting  the  beetles  is  probably  the  only  practical  remedy 
against  the  pests. 

Bark  Beetles  are  small  weevils,  generally  not  exceeding 
one-eighth  of  an  inch,  with  very  short  snouts,  of  cylindrical 
form,  and  black,  brown  or  gray  color.  Boring  Utile  hok-s 
through  the  bark  into  the  soft  layers  of  cambium  and  sap- 
wood  in  early  spring,  they  enter  and  make  a  burrow  close 
under  the  bark,  in  which  the  eggs  are  laid ;  these  sotm  hatch 
and  the  larva;  continue  the  burrow  in  the  cambium  or  wood, 
in  galleries  characteristic  in  outline  for  e.^ch  species.  At 
the  ends  of  these  channels  they  pupate  and  (in  some  of  the 
species)  within  a  month  of  the  egg-laying  the  young  beetles 
seek  the  old  opening  or  a  new  one  to  mate  and  repeat  the 
cycle,  several  broods  being  developal  in  the  summer. 

Remedies,  as  described  on  page  147,  consist  in  removal 
of  infected  parts  or  trees,  baiting,  and  keeping  trees  in  vig- 
orous condition. 

Round-headed  Wood-borers  are  large  beetles  with  elon- 
gated body,  greatly  varied  in  color,  recognized  easily  by 
their  long  feelers  or  antennae,  which  are  longer  than  their 


154 


Control  of  Parasites 


! 
i 
J 


bodies.  Their  while  gruks  live  in  the  wcxxl  of  trees.  They 
are,  as  a  rule,  much  less  harmful  than  the  bark  bietles,  since 
they  are  less  prolific.  Nevertheless,  in  younj^  trees  of  |)0|)- 
lars,  willuv  s,  chestnut,  oak,  ash,  walnut,  cherry,  and  apple, 
the  j?rubs,  esjjecially  those  whicli  burrow  in  tin-  ruots,  do 
enough  havoc  to  kill  occasionally  even  large  trees. 

The  most  obnoxious  seems  to  be  the  La  ust-borcr,  which 
riddles  young  Black  Locust  trees  until  they  die,  or  else  under- 
mines their  stability;  it  also  attacks  walnut  and  hickory. 
The  brown  to  black  beetles,  striped  and  banded  with  golden 
yellow  and  with  a  W  on  their  wing-covers,  gather  in  August 
and  early  September  on  the  tlowers  of  goldenrcMl,  where 
they  may  be  collected;  tliey  may  also  be  collected  as  they 
lay  their  egi-rs  soon  afterward  in  the  crevices  of  the  bark. 
The  larva  issues  the  same  fall  and  bores  a  quarter-inch  hole 
under  the  bark  and  U})wards,  the  ejected  wood  dust  dis- 
closing its  presence. 

\\  hitewa.shing,  soaj'ing.  or  covering  witli  dcnclrolene, 
to  prevent  tlic  ))trtle  from  laying  its  eggs  in  .\ugust,  besides 
collecting  the  beetles,  are  the  remedies  for  this  and  other 
similar  borers. 

The  Odk-pnimr  and  other  twig-girdlers  belong  here. 
They  lay  their  eggs  in  a  twig  and  then  girdle  the  twig  at  some 
distance  below,  so  that  it  may  clie  and  be  broken  olT  by  the 
winds,  the  larva  developing  in  the  fallen  twig  on  the  ground. 

I'lat-hradcd  Wood-bimrs  are  large,  broad,  s(|uarish  beetles 
of  metallic  colors,  with  short  legs,  the  footless  grubs  recog- 
nizable by  the  much  broariened  and  llattened  head  and 
front  i)art.  The  grubs  live  in  the  wood  of  trees,  making 
burrows  in  the  cambium,  wood,  or  bark.  The  ellijuic 
form  of  the  liolea  ihrougii  uhiih  the  larva-  enter  and  the 
young  beetles  escape  is  characteristic.  These  beetles  arc 
chiefly  injurious  to  deciduous  trees  —  oak,  beech,  basswood, 


Specific  Pests 


15s 


poplar,  and  willow  -  dainaKing  and  even  killing  the  younger 
trees  and  young  branches. 

Pruning  the  infested  l)randics  seems  the  onlv  reined  \'. 
Clickini'  Hntlt's,  similar  in  shape,  but  smalh  r  tlian  the 
former  and  of  dull  colors,  are  most  readily  recoeni  od 
by  their  capacity  of  snapping  and  jumping  when  i..id 
on  their  backs,  thereh  regaining  their  legs.  Their  grub. 
are  the  long,  slend<r  -.iircuvrms,  living  for  three  yean, 
underground;  they  ai  especially  injurious  to  ■;  us.-,  crops  and 
lawns,  cutting  off  the  ,  iss  just  below  the  f  •  wn  '-;  ;:rus.i 
browning  and  dyi.  g  in  constantly  enlarging  i> ;"  b^'v,  i  ■  ey 
al.>o  injure  trees  b.  feeding  on  their  roots,  vl  '.  ''y  in-,  les 
gnaw  the  young  roots  of  deciduous  trees  and  .iiUiC  >. 

Ditching  around  the  a'^ected  patches  of  lawn  and  collect- 
ing the  worms  as  they  coiic  out  into  the  ditch,  or  poisoning 
them  with  Paris  Green  is  applicable  to  the  grass  pests;  hot 
water  applications  at  the  root,  collecting  tiie  beetles  or 
baiting  then^  v.ith  iKjisom  I  wads  of  clover,  i)otato,  or  corn- 
meal  at  night  arc  method    applicable  to  the  tree  pests. 

Cockchafers  are  large  i  cetles,  of  wliich  the  well-known 
June  bug  is  a  type;  they  cause  injury  to  leaves  in  the  beetle 
stage  and  to  roots  in  the  grub  age;  the  latter,  living  for 
several  years  underground,  arc  capable  of  ruining  young 
j)lantations. 

They  are  easily  collected  as  beetles,  by  jarring  the  branches 
late  in  the  evening,  or  better,  in  the  cool  of  early  morning, 
when  they  do  not  fly  readily.  When  underground,  the 
application  of  kerosene  emulsion  ten  times  diluted,  or  of  a 
tobacco  decoction,  or  else  digging  them  out  may  be  resorted 

to. 

Leaf  Bciih:-.  are  small  or  medium-sized,  often  of  bright  and 
metaUic  color,  of  semi-spherical  or  cylindrical  form  and 
compact  body.     Both  beetles  and  larvte,  which  latter  are 


156 


Control  of  Parasites 


also  colored  and  have  well-developed  legs,  usually  live  on 
the  leaves;  the  pupa  generally  and  sometimes  also  the  beetle 
wintering  either  underground  or  in  the  litter.  The  different 
species  are  more  or  less  dependent  on  certain  species  of 
trees;  willows,  poplars,  elms,  also  oaks  and  pines  having 
their  special  pests.  Here  belong  also  the  potato-beetle, 
the  asparagus-beetle,  and  the  cucumber-beetle.  The  most 
common  and  most  destructive  to  ornamental  trees  is  the 
imported  — 

Elm-leaf  Beetle,  the  beetle  being  yellowish  brown  to  green- 
ish yellow  with  two  or  more  black  stripes  on  the  wings,  and 
the  half-inch  larva  yellowish  black  with  black  spots  and 
tufts  of  hair  and  wide  yellow  lines  along  the  back  and  sides. 
The  foliage  is  characteristically  eaten,  the  soft  tissue  between 
the  ribs  being  attacked  ir.  patches;  the  beetles  eating  irreg- 
ular holes,  the  grubs  systematically  skeletonizing.  The 
grubs  work  on  the  under  side  of  leaves  from  May  until 
-August,  together  with  the  one  to  three  or  four  broods  of 
beetles,  which  lay  their  yellow  bottle-shaped  egg  clusters  on 
the  under  side  of  leaves.  The  pupa  winters  under  the 
fallen  leaves  near  the  base  of  the  tree,  and  the  beetle  in  all 
sorts  of  sheltered  places;  they  attack  the  leaves  in  spring 
(April  or  early  May)  as  soon  as  these  are  fully  developed, 
beginning  at  the  top  of  the  tree. 

The  many  broods,  the  prolific  reproduction,  and  the  fact 
tliat  both  beetle  and  larva  feed  on  the  foliage,  make  this 
l)est  most  injurious,  since  in  one  season  \*  may  destroy  two 
or  three  sets  of  new  foliage  and  exhaust  the  tree. 

Besides  destroying  the  wintering  beetles  or  i>upa»,  either 
mechanically  or  by  hot  water  or  kerosene,  etc.,  spray  with 
arsenites  as  soon  as  beetles  begin  feedin^^,  a  second  spray- 
ing being  api)lied  when  o^jis  begin  to  hatch  or  ten  days 
later.     Since  the  beetles  are  disinclined  to  fly,  a  single  tree 


1 


Specific  Pests 


157 


may  be  kept  nearly  or  entirely  free,  the  spreading  from  other 
infested  trees  being  slow. 

3,  Butterflies  and  Moths  (Lepidopter a —ScaXy  wings). 

In   these   two   orders   it    is  only  the   larva  or  caterpillar 

which   feeds  on   leaves,   fruits,   and    softer  tissues.     The 

bodily  distinction  of  butterflies  and  moths  lies  in  the  feelers 

or  antenna,  the  butterflies  having,  with  few  exceptions,  feelers 

terminating  in  a  distinct  club  at  the  tip,  which  is  absent  in 

the  moths.     When  sitting,  the  latter  hold  their  wings  usually 

spread  out  flat,  the  former  more  or  less  folded  together; 

moths  are  night-fliers,  butterflies  are,  as  a  general  rule,  on 

the  wing  only  during  the  day.    The  caterpillars  distinguish 

themselves  from  the  grubs  by  their  greater  motility,  having 

better  developed  legs,  three  imirs  in  front  and  generally 

two  to  <ive  pairs  at  the  other  end ;  those  living  in  the  open 

are  generally  colorai,  and  either  hairy  or  besf^t  with  bristles 

or  warts,  those  living  inside  their  host  plant  or  in  the  ground 

remaining  colorless  and  naked.    The  moth  caterpillars  are 

mostly  without  hairs  and  have  sixteen  feet,  and  what  is 

important  as  far  as  damage  is  concerned,  do  not,  as  a  rule, 

live  gregariously. 

The  more  than  three  thousand  species  are  grouped  in 
different  ways  from  different  points  of  view.  For  our 
more  practical  purposes  we  may  group  them  into  the  large 
and  the  small  butterflies  and  nrnths,  the  former  feeding 
exposed  on  or  among  the  leaves,  the  latter  concealed  in  the 
buds  or  in  folded  or  rolled  leaves.  Of  the  large  butterflies 
and  moths  there  are  three  groups,  which  contain  important 
injurious  species,  namely,  the  sphinxes,  the  spinners  and 
the  inch-worms,  while  among  the  small  caterpillars  two 
groujjs  are  notable  depredators,  namely,  the  leaf -rollers 
and  the  leaf-miners. 
Sphinxes  or  Hawk- mollis  are  large  butterflies  with  narrow, 


158 


Control  of  Parasites 


pointed  wings,  the  front  pair  much  longer  than  the  hind 
wings;  the  large  caterpillars  are  hairless  and  peculiarly 
marked  by  a  hard,  glossy  eye  spot  or  a  cur\cd  horn  on  the 
last  segment.  The  ash-tree  sphinx  and  the  ])ine  sphinx  are 
examples  of  this  family.  Their  size  and  usually  rare,  single 
occurrence  makes  tlicir  damage  ordinarily  not  worth  con- 
sidering. W  here  unusually  developed,  collecting  is  prob- 
ably tlie  readiest  remedy. 

Allied  to  this  group  are  the  Sesias,  with  clear  wings  like 
hornets,  wl^ose  cateipillars  attack  many  cultivated  plants 
and  become  (|uiti'  injurious,  especially  to  young  trees. 
Wilhnvs,  jioplars,  birches,  and  alders  are  attacked  by  them. 
They  are  borers,  often  confounded  uith  the  beetle-borers, 
the  caterpillar  living,  like  the  grub  of  the  beetle-borers,  in 
the  wo(k1;  some  hollowing  out  branclilets  along  the  pith, 
others,  like  the  peach  borer,  lix-ing  between  bark  and  wood 
a  little  below  t!ie  ground;  others  bore  in  plum,  i)car,  maple, 
graj)evines. 

'I  he  .-ame  remedies  usal  in  the  case  of  other  borers  are 
to  bv  a;  plied,  namely,  cutting  out  die  culprit  or  preventing 
its  ingress  by  apjukations  of  lime  wash,  deiulrolene,  etc. 

Spimurs  are  t\pical  moths,  of  medium  size,  brightly 
colored,  generally  white,  yellow,  brown,  gray,  or  black; 
flying  at  night;  the  cateri)illars,  which  in  some  cases  live 
for  several  years  and,  as  a  rule,  at  least  winter  as  such,  are, 
with  the  exception  of  those  who  live  within  the  plant  or 
ground,  hairy,  bri^-tiy,  or  warty,  and  vividly  colored;  they 
have  a  pronounced  capac'ty  for  sj)inning  and  i)U})ate  in  silk 
cocoons:  the  silkworm-  belong  here. 

Being  chieilv  gregarious,  ihe\-  arc  much  more  destructive 
than  the  former  grou]).  and,  indiid,  sor-e  of  tlie  most  injuri- 
ous peMs  :ire  to  be  fuuiui  amt)ng  them.  A  fe  are  wood- 
borers,  the  \(r\  large  wliiti-h  and  black  spotted  larva  living 


1 


Specific  Pests 


159 


from  two  to  four  years  in  the  trunks  or  roots  of  trees,  but 
the  majority  are  leaf-eaters.  Of  this  grouj)  it  will  be  neces- 
sary to  describe  several  in  detail  as  being  of  great  importance. 
Tussock  Moth.  The  cater|)illar  is  easily  no'gnized  by 
its  coral-red  head,  with  a  i)air  of  long  black  ]ilumes  above 
it  and  a  single  one  at  the  other  extremity;  the  small  male 
moth  has  delicately-marked  gray  or  grayish-\\hite  wings, 
while  the  gray-bodied  female  is  wingless;  the  cocoon  is 
s])un  in  crevices  of  the  bark;  I  he  eggs  are  deposited  on  the 
empty  cocoon  in  a  conspicuous  v>!iile  frotliy  mass,  which 
soon  hardens,  and  in  which  the  wintering  takes  place.  The 
caterjiillars  emerge  in  May,  hanging  b\-  silken  threads  when 
young,  s])inning  their  cocoons  in  early  July,  the  moths  llying 
in  July  and  August.  Two  or  three  generations  form  in  a 
year. 

They  feed  on  ma[)le,  basswood,  horse-chestnut,  buckeye, 
elm,  and  a  number  of  other  si)ecies,  and  become  in  some 
localities  a  veritable  scourge,  wandering  long  distances  for 
food  supply. 

Gathering  the  egg  mas.ses  not  later  tlian  the  middle  of 
May,  or  destroying  them  wiili  creosote  oil,  which  is  easily 
done,  is  also  most  effective.  A  loose  cotton  band  will  ] 're- 
vent  the  ascent  of  wandering  females  and  caterpillars. 
Spraying  early  in  the  season  and  as  far  as  practicable  on 
the  under  side  of  liie  leaves,  where  the  young  caterpillars 
feed,  or  else  later  with  stronger  doses,  and  sliaking  tlic 
caterpillars  from  the  hmbs  of  younger  trees  iray  also  be 
resorted  to. 

Forest   Ti'nt-catcr pillar  or  Maple-worm,  a  black  to  steel 
blue  catcrj)illar,  .bout  two  inches  in  length  when  full  grown, 
with  whitish  diamonrl-shaped  spots  along  the  l)a(k,  ciiierges 
very  early  in  spring  lApril),  clustering  around  thi'  hmb-  in 
number>  when  not  feeding,  and,  if  shaken  off,  hanging  down 


i6o 


Control  of  Parasites 


by  threads.  The  white  or  yellowish  cocoons  are  spun  in 
the  leaves  on  the  tree  or  on  the  ground,  in  crevices  of  bark 
or  other  shelter.  No  tents  like  those  of  the  apple  tent- 
caterpillar  are  made,  but  thin  carpets  are  spun  along  the 
bark,  and  occasionally  several  terminal  leaves  are  included 
in  the  web.  The  moths  are  recognizal  by  their  rusty  brown 
or  buff  color;  they  fly  in  July,  and  lay  their  eggs  on  the  lower 
twigs,  encircling  them  in  belts,  covered  with  a  brownish 
protective  covering. 

They  feed  not  only  on  majjle,  but  on  a  variety  of  species, 
and  can  become  very  destructive. 

Collecting  the  egg  clusters,  or  cutting  oi'f  the  twigs  with  the 
egg  clusters  and  burning  them  can  be  advantageously  prac- 
tised with  young  trees  in  July  or  August.  Crushing  the 
clusters  of  young  caterpillars,  or  else  brushing,  shaking, 
and  jarring  them  down  and  preventing  their  re  ascent  by  a 
band  of  cotton  batting,  riendrolcnc,  etc,  or  swabbing  their 
nests  in  early  morning  with  kero.sene  is  effective  in  April 
to  May,  or  else  thorough  spra\ing  with  kerosene  emulsion 
or  whale-oil  .soap  or  arsenite,'  as  the  leaves  unfold.  The 
collection  of  cocoons  may  also  be  resorted  to,  but  care  shoukl 
be  taken  not  to  destroy  them  until  the  parasites  have  been 
hatched  from  them. 

Fall  Web-worm.  A  familiar  sight  during  July,  August, 
and  September  are  the  consjjicuous  silken  webs,  nests  of 
young.  {)ale  yellow,  black-headed,  black-dotted  and  stri[>ed, 
hairy  caterpillars,  which,  feeding  gregariously,  spin  one  or 
se\eral  leaves  together,  enlarging  the  web  as  they  grow 
until  the  foliage  of  the  whole  limb  is  included.  In  southern 
latitudes,  two  broods  appear  in  a  season,  the  first  one  issuing 
in  June.     The  rlark  brown  pupa  is  spun  in  a  silken  cocoon 

'  Boil  one  {Kjund  while  arsenic  with  two  pounds  freshly  sliu  knl  lime  in 
one  gallon  of  water  for  tony  minutes  and  dilute  in  fifty  gallons  of  water. 


1 


specific  Pests 


i6i 


attached  to  crevices  in  the  bark  or  other  similar  shelter, 
and  in  the  ground  if  soft  enough,  wintering  in  this  condi- 
tion. The  small,  pure  white  or  brown  and  black-dotted 
moths  issue  in  June  or  July  (the  first  southern  brood  in 
May),  and  lay  their  bright  golden  eggs  in  large  clusters  on 
leaves,  usually  on  tlie  under  side  and  near  the  end  of  the 
branches,  from  which  the  caterpillars  issue  within  a  week 
or  ten  days. 

Besides  the  dri-nage  to  the  foliage,  the  disagreeable  habit 
of  the  worms  of  droj)ping  from  the  trees  is  obnoxious  in 
city  streets.  Poplars,  willows,  box-elder,  ash,  cherry,  elm, 
and  basswfKMl  suff«T  most  from  this  pest,  but  nearly  all  other 
trees  are  attacked  if  the  food  sujjply  is  scarce  in  a  year  of 
excessive  de\'elopment. 

The  easiest  method  of  combating  the  pest  is  to  cut  off  and 
burn  the  webs,  or  burn  tliem  on  the  tree  witii  a  torch,  with 
proper  caution  to  avoid  injuring  the  tree.  Sj)raying  with 
arsenical  poisons  wlien  the  young  caterpillars  appear  is 
also  elTecti\e. 

Bag  Worm.  The  bags,  one  to  two  inches  in  length,  in 
which  the  caterj)illars  enclose  themselves  while  feetiing  and 
in  which  they  finally  puj^ate,  arc  the  readiest  sign  of  their 
jiresence.  These  bags  are  made  of  jjine  needles,  bits  of 
foliage  and  bark,  and  are  gradually  built  up  by  each  indi- 
vidual around  itself.  The  caterpillars  appear  in  May  and 
early  June,  and  at  once  begin  the  construction  of  their 
bags,  first  carrying  them  upright  on  their  |)osterior  body, 
then,  as  they  grow  heavier,  hanging  down.  In  spite  of 
this  imi)ediment,  they  spin  down  and  wander  freely;  finally, 
in  September,  attaching  themselves  hanging  down  from 
twigs,  they  j)Ui)ate  within  the  bag.  The  inconspicuous 
males,  with  black  hairy  bod\-  and  glassy  wings,  fly  in  Sep- 
tember and  October;  the  females  are  wingless,  hairless,  and 


1 

1 


1 62 


Control  of  Parasites 


footless,  and  never  leave  their  bags,  depositing  the  eggs 
within  them,  and  then  dropping  out  to  die,  the  eggs  winter- 
ing in  the  bag. 

This  is  a  dangerous  enemy  of  conifers  as  well  as  of  decid- 
uous trees,  mainly  in  southern  latitudes. 

The  collection  of  the  bags  is  the  readiest  means  of  control- 
ling them,  besides  spraying  with  arsenate  of  lead  (fifteen 
ounces  to  forty  gallons  of  water)  in  May  and  June, 

Gypsy  Moth.  This  imported  insect,  in  aj)pearance  some- 
what like  the  Tussock-moth,  so  far  almost  harmless  in  its 
native  country,  Europe,  has  here  become  injurious,  and 
that  extremely  so,  although  only  in  a  very  limited  locality  in 
Massachusetts.  It  is  peculiarly  interesting  because  of  the 
fruitless  etTorts  to  exterminate  it,  in  which  the  State  of  Mas- 
sachusetts has  spent  so  far  more  than  one  million  dollars. 

Tlie  coloration  in  all  stages  is  of  a  darker  or  lighter  brown- 
ish or  yellowish  brown  tint,  the  caterpillar,  two  to  two  and 
a  half  inches  long  when  full  grown,  dotted  with  long  hair 
tufts  on  colored  blue  and  red  tubercles;  the  egg  masses  laid 
anywhere  on  limbs,  fence  rails  or  other  objects,  are  covered 
with  bulT-colored  scales,  giving  them  a  sjKmge-like  appear- 
ance. It  is  in  this  stage  that  the  insect  winters,  the  cater- 
pillars issuing  from  the  end  of  .\])ril  until  the  middle  of  June, 
and  feeding  on  the  leaves  of  elm,  majile,  oak,  indeed  on 
almost  all  deciduous  trees  and  shrubs,  some  continuing  until 
the  middle  of  July,  cloing  their  work  in  clusters  by  night, 
and  hiding  in  cre\ices  by  day.  The  moths  emerge  from 
the  pupa'  in  June  and  July,  and  dcjiosit  their  eggs,  which 
winter.     Sometimes  two  brocxls  occur. 

The  most  effective  remedy  is  the  collecting  and  burning 
of  the  conspicuous  egg  masses,  or  else  crushing  and  daubing 
them  with  creosote  oil,  hot  if  possible,  during  the  fall,  winter, 
and  spring.    Trees  may  be  banded  with  burlap  or  insect 


i 


Specific  Pests 


163 


lime  (about  the  middle  of  May) ,  to  prevent  the  ascent  of  the 
caterpillar  during  the  feeding  season,  and  finally  a  strong 
arsenate  of  lead  spray  (five  pounds  to  fifty  gallons)  may  be 
applied  when  the  leaves  are  full  grown  and  the  caterpillars 
still  young. 

Carpenter  Moth.  Various  species  of  moths  known  by 
this  name  infest  in  their  larval  stage  various  species  of  trees, 
boring  large  holes  and  galleries  into  the  wood. 

The  oak-carpenter,  although  rare,  is  especially  injurious, 
its  rose-colored  larva  honeycombing  the  living  wood  as 
well  as  the  cut  wood  of  Oak  and  Black  Locust;  the  worms 
remain  two  or  three  years  in  the  wood  before  developing 
into  the  moth,  which  is  of  gray  color,  flying  in  June  or 
July. 

The  remedies  usually  applied  for  borers  may  be  used  in 
this  case,  namely,  covering  the  trunk  with  soft  soap  to  pre- 
vent the  oviposition  in  early  June,  or  applying  bisulphide 
in  the  holes,  or  else  digging  out  the  worms. 

Spiny  Elm  Caterpillar,  Mourning-cloak  or  Antiopa.  A 
common,  beautiful,  large  butterfly,  purpled  brown  or  black, 
with  a  broad  cream-colored  border  and  a  row  of  pale  blue 
spots.  The  black,  spiny  caterpillars,  white-speckled,  and 
with  a  row  of  eight  dark  brick-red  spots,  feed  gregariously, 
making  light  webs  in  their  path.  They  are  sometimes,  in 
limited  colonies,  very  destructive  to  the  foliage,  especially 
of  the  elm,  birch,  basswood,  and  the  various  poplars.  It  is 
interesting,  in  that  the  butterfly  hibernates  and  appears 
sometimes  as  early  as  March,  making  two  broods  in  the 
season;  the  first  brood  apj)ears  in  Mav,  June,  or  July,  the 
second  in  August.  The  eggs  are  laid  in  clusters  encircling 
the  twigs;  the  gray-brown,  spiny  chrysalis,  hanging  from 
fence  rails,  stumps,  or  other  su{)port  is  characteristic. 

Spraying  is  the  best  remedy,  or  else  shaking  down  the 


gmg 


164 


Control  of  Parasites 


large  caterpillars  or  bringing  theiu  down  by  a  stream  of 
water,  or  cutting  off  the  infested  branches  while  the  cater- 
pillars are  still  young  and  closely  gregarious. 

Army-worms  or  Cut-worms  comprise  a  number  of  species, 
some  of  which  sjnn  cocoons,  others  do  not.  They  are  typ- 
ical, medium-sized,  night-moths;  the  usually  hairless  cater- 
pillars are  also  frequently  night-prowlers.  While  mostly 
non-gregarious,  some  of  them  develop  in  such  large  masses, 
wandering  over  the  ground,  that  the  first  name  is  applied 
to  them,  while  the  habit  of  cutting  off  buds  and  leaf  parts 
leads  to  the  second  name.  Some  of  the  caterpillars  are 
borers;  others  live  underground,  feeding  on  roots;  the 
majority,  however,  live  on  the  foliage  of  the  host  plant. 
The  true  Army-worm,  a  brownish,  white-striped  caterpillar, 
from  one  and  a  half  to  two  inches  in  length,  with  a  brownish 
moth,  making  two  or  three  generations  in  the  year,  more 
frequently  damages  grass  crops  than  trees.  The  velvety 
black,  yellow-lined,  hairy  caterpillar  of  the  Erratic  Army- 
worm,  the  mot 'led  gray  worms  of  another  cut-worm,  as  well 
as  many  others,  climb  the  oak,  elm,  cherry,  etc.,  by  night, 
revealing  their  presence  by  the  cut-off  buds  and  leaf  par- 
ticles which  fall  to  the  ground.  Both  deciduous  and  co- 
niferous trees  find  enemies  in  this  group.  Most  of  the  moths 
of  this  group  fly  in  summer  and  fall,  usually  wintering  under- 
ground as  caterpillars  or  pupae. 

The  climbing  cut-worms,  which  winter  as  such  under- 
ground, can  be  j)revented  from  climbing  the  trees  by  various 
bands.  They  can  also  be  baited  with  j>oisoned  bran  (one 
ounce  of  Paris  Green  lo  three  ounces  of  bran) ,  placed  at  the 
base  of  the  tree.  If  whole  areas  are  infested,  in  addition 
to  banding  the  trees,  ditching  and  collecting  in  the  ditches 
is  recommended. 

Inch-worms  or  Canker-worms  {Gcomelrids) ,  also  called 


Specific  Pests 


165 


spanworms,  measuring-worms,  and  geometers,  from  the 
manner  in  which  the  caterpillars  move,  drawing  their  hind 
parts  after  them  by  curving  the  back,  a  motion  due  to  their 
having  only  two  pairs  of  abdominal  legs,  are  the  larvae  of 
various  species  of  moths,  which  arc  rccognizaJ  by  the  fact 
that  the  four  wings  are  of  the  same  color,  —  snow-white, 
ash-gray,  or  yellow,  —  the  caterpillars  being  mostly  greenish 
to  brown,  and  striped  or  dotted. 

These  worms  are  leaf-eaters,  preying  on  maples,  poplars, 
willows,  pines,  etc.,  being  especially  (lcstructi\c  to  elms. 
The  most  injurious  is  the 

Spring  Canker-worm.  The  eggs  of  this  spanworm  are 
laid  in  patches  on  the  trunk  and  limbs  in  early  spring,  the 
caterpillars  appearing  at  the  end  of  April,  and  feeding 
through  May  and  June.  During  the  last  two  weeks  in 
June  they  descend  to  the  ground  by  silken  threads,  to  pupate 
beneath  the  soil  surface.  A  few  moths  may  come  out  in 
the  fall  and  lay  their  eggs,  but  the  majority  appear  in  spring. 
The  female  is  wingless  and  grub-like,  and  ascends  the  tree 
to  deposit  her  eggs. 

The  other  canker-worms  vary  mainly  in  the  time  of  their 
stages  of  development,  but  in  general  all  behave  alike. 

Banding  the  trees  in  March  prevents  the  ascent  of  the 
females,  thus  forcing  them  to  lay  the  egg  masses  below  the 
barrier,  where  the  hatching  larva;  starve  to  death.  Egg 
masse-  can  be  mechanically  destroyed  by  means  of  dendro- 
lene,  or  otherwise.  If  these  preventives  ha\'e  been  neglected, 
spray  with  arsenate,  first  when  the  leaves  are  half-formed, 
and,  if  necessary,  at  intervals  of  two  weeks. 

Leaf-miners  (Tinea)  and  I  eaf-rollers  (Tortrix),  rep- 
resented '>y  over  two  thousfiiii  species,  are  sc^  named  be- 
cause iiiei'  very  small  larva?  mine  in  leaver,  hurls.  v(H:ng 
shoots,  also  in  bark,  root,  and  fruit.     The  leaf  rollers  also 


i66 


Control  of  Parasites 


i  ■= 


have  the  habit  of  rolling  together  needles  or  leaves,  within 
which  they  pupate.  The  familiar  "moths"  of  the  house- 
hold are  characteristic  of  this  group  of  depredators  in  gen- 
eral appearance  and  habit.  They  are  much  less  injurious 
than  the  large  moths  and  butterflies,  as  a  rule  causing  at 
most  only  the  death  of  twig  ends;  yet  some  are  occasionally 
very  destructive,  especially  to  conifers,  .^mong  these  may 
be  mentioned  the  Larch-moth,  which  causes  the  leaves  of 
the  larch  to  die  and  drop,  and  by  repeated  defoliation  brings 
about  the  death  of  the  tree;  large  areas  of  tamarack  in  the 
northern  woods  have  been  destroyed  by  this  tiny  insect;  also 
the  Pine-twister,  which  kills  the  end-buds,  c  pecially  of 
young  trees,  and  thereby  causes  a  crooked  or  twisted  growth 
of  the  stem;  and  the  Spriuc-hud  Tortrix,  which  has  been 
resjwnsible  for  the  deutli  of  large  areas  of  s{)ruce  and  fir  in 
New  England,  in  conjunction  with  the  secondary  bark-beetles. 

The  Pine-bud  Worm  develops  from  eggs  laid  by  the  moth 
at  the  base  t>f  tlie  bud  of  the  leader  in  May;  the  larva  soon 
(le\c!oi)s,  enters  the  bud,  hollows  it  out  and  burrows  back 
into  the  twig,  in  which  retreat  ii  v/intcrs,  renewing  its  work 
in  spring,  and  continuing  until  the  moth  is  hatched,  finally 
causing  the  death  of  the  t>vig.  Other  bud  worms  vary  only 
in  the  time  of  development,  some  being  double-brooded, 
but  all  work  in  somewhat  the  same  manner.  The  oozing 
out  '^f  r-'sin  at  tlie  |)oint  of  entrance,  forming  a  smaller  or 
larger,  crusted,  resin -gall,  is  a  sign  of  the  presence  of  the 
burrowing  pests.  Some,  like  the  spruce-bud  worm,  live 
on  the  outside  and  defoliate  leaves,  as  do  the  large  leaf- 
eaters. 

The  leaf-rollers  investing  deciduous  trees  usually  feed  only 
on  the  (J!  t. side  leaves  and  buds;  the  eggs  having  been  laid 
at  the  base  of  the  end-buds,  the  larva:  hatch  just  as  the  buds 
unfold,  and  the  youngest  leaves  are  at  once  eaten.     Later 


Specific  Pests 


167 


on  the  older  ones  are  attacked,  one  or  several  being  loosely 
or  densely  rolled  and  spun  together  for  a  retreat.  The 
death  of  twigs,  and  even  of  branches,  by  drouth  is  the  result. 

The  only  remedy  for  these  bud  pests  is  at  once  to  prune 
the  infested  twigs  as  soon  as  the  presence  of  the  pest  is  dis- 
covered in  May  or  June.  Their  detection  requires  close 
observation.  With  single  valuable  conifer  species,  it  is 
possible  to  cut  out  the  worm  and  clean  out  the  burrow,  dress- 
ing the  wound  with  an  antiseptic  and  with  tree  wax;  if  this 
be  done  in  time,  the  leader  may  be  saved.  In  the  case  of 
the  open  feeders,  early  application  of  insecticides  is  advised. 

The  leaf-miners,  which  live  inside  the  soft  tissues  of  the 
leaves,  skeletonizing  them,  are  mostly  much  less  injurious, 
and  almost  innocuous,  except  that  they  mar  the  appearance 
of  the  leaves.  When  developed  excessively,  the  best  rem- 
edy is  to  collect  and  burn  the  fallen  leaves  in  the  fall  or 
spring,  since  in  or  among  these  the  worms  winter  in  specially 
constructed  cases. 

Any  number  of  minor  pests  could  be  cited  in  addition  to 
the  above.  Moreover,  from  time  to  time,  new  pests,  hitherto 
known  only  to  the  entomologist,  or  sometimes  totally  un- 
known, become  prominent  through  unusual  development. 
These  will  have  to  be  combated  by  applying  the  principles 
described  in  this  chapter. 


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CHAPTER  VII 
CARE   IN   PLANTING   TREES 

RACTICAL  application  of  the  physiological 
knowledge  contained  in  the  preceding  chapters 
is  needful  at  the  very  start,  namely,  when 
first  establishing  a  tree.  The  first  cause  of 
trouble  in  transplanted  trees  and  of  death  is  not  unfrequently 
to  be  found  in  the  ignorance  and  lack  of  care  exhibited 
before  and  during  transplanting.  Many  trees  set  out  are 
dead  or  are  doomed  to  death  before  they  reacli  the  plant 
hole. 

Transplanting  a  tree  from  one  site  to  another  is  a  surgical 
operation  during  which  the  patient  tieeds  special  attention. 

It  is  rarely,  if  at  all,  possible  to  take  up  all  the  fine  root- 
lets with  their  root-hairs  intact;  these  adhere  closely  to  the 
soil  particles,  hence  in  the  attempt  to  remove  them  a  portion 
of  the  feeding  apparatus  is  always  mechanically  destroyed. 
Next,  the  delicate  root-hairs  and  fibrils  are  apt  to  dry  out 
when  exposed  to  the  air,  especially  in  windy,  sunny,  dry 
weather,  and  thus  another  portion  of  the  feeding  apparatus  is 
lost;  lastly,  with  larger  specimens,  the  far-lying  roots  can 
practically  not  be  reached  and  a  third  portion  of  the  root 
system  is  cut  off.  Furthermore,  if  the  plant  material  is 
shipped  any  distance,  the  vital  activities  are  interrupted, 
temperature  and  moisture  conditions  may  be  unfavorable 
during  transshipment  and  a  partial  drjing  out  of  roots, 
buds,  or  foliage  is  the  consequence. 

i68 


Care  in  Planting  Trees 


169 


As  a  result  of  these  losses  the  balance  between  crown  and 
root,  between  consumption  and  supply  of  water,  is  disturbed, 
and,'  unless  this  balance  is  at  once  reestablished  by  pruning 
at  the  top  and  by  favorable  conditions  for  replacement  of 
lost  parts  at  the  root,  a  part  of  the  crown  must  die. 

This  trouble  may  be  nearly  or  entirely  avoided  by  trans- 
planting with  a  ball  of  earth,  when  the  root  system  is  not  at 
all  disturbed.  This  is  usually  prac  cable  only  with  small 
plants;  as  a  rule,  transplanting  is  done  with  the  naked  roots. 
Care  should  then  be  had  to  take  up  as  much  as  practicable 
of  the  root  system,  keeping  it  intact,  using  a  fork  rather 
than  a  spade,  and  keeping  in  mind  that  the  root  tips  are  the 
important  part;  then  the  roots  should  be  immediately  pro- 
tected against  drying  out  by  covering  with  moist  soil,  wet 
bagging,  moss,  etc.,  and  be  kept  moist  until  the  tree  is  reset. 

If  it  has  not  been  possible  to  secure  the  entire  root  system 
practically  intact,  then  a  proportionate  amount  of  the  crown 
system  should  also  be  removed  by  cutting  back  branches, 
using  at  the  same  time  the  opportunity  for  correcting  the 
form  (see  page  98).  This  pruning  is  best  done  just  before 
setting  the  tree,  or,  more  conveniently,  at  once  after  setting 
while  the  knowledge  of  the  conditions  of  the  root  system  is 
stiU  fresh  in  mind.  If  it  is  neglected,  parts  of  the  crown 
will  die  and  these  may  not  be  the  parts  we  are  willing  to 
spare.  It  does  not  matter  much  if  the  pruning  at  the  top 
were   more   severe   than   necessary;  the   opposite   matters 

much  more. 

When  receiving  nursery  stock  it  should  be  opened  at 
once  in  a  shady  cool  place  and  the  root  packing  should  be 
examined.  If  it  is  dry  and  hot,  the  chance  of  securing  a 
living  plant  is  smaU.  Nevertheless,  by  proper  treatment 
plants  may  sometimes  be  recuperated ;  some  species  especially 
will  stand  a  good  deal  of  maltreatment  and  are  able  to  recover. 


170 


Care  in  Planting  Trees 


s 

1 1 


11 


Hi 


"Heeling"  them  in  deeply  in  a  trench  under  shade  and  in 
fresh  soil,  and  drenching  them  thoroughly  with  water,  keep- 
ing them  drenched  for  a  day  or  two,  or  even  keeping  them 
entirely  submerged  under  water  may  restore  what  appeared 
quite  hopeless  material.  Even  if  the  leaves  of  conifers  have 
suffered,  so  long  as  the  buds  are  still  fresh  looking,  the  case 
is  not  quite  hopeless  if  proper  care  is  applied  in  keeping 
roots  and  tips  moist,  and  especially  if  rainy  weather 
sets  in. 

Even  if  the  buds  of  conifers  are  started,  they  can  be  safely 
transplanted,  except  the  larch,  which  is  sensitive  in  this 
respect.  Broad-leaved  stock,  arriving  after  the  foliage  is 
out  or  with  the  buds  started,  is  best  stripped  of  its  foli- 
age or  deprived  of  the  most  forward  buds  to  prevent  wilting, 
and  to  give  time  for  the  roots  to  take  hold  before  too  much 
demand  is  made  on  the  water-supply. 

In  forest  planting,  where  thousands  of  small  trees  are  set, 
they  are  transported  to  the  plant  holes  in  a  pail  partly  filled 
with  water  (better  than  a  loam  puddle),  and  the  larger 
specimens  should  be  similarly  kept  moist  by  various  means 
on  their  way  to  the  plant  hole. 

The  advantage  of  nursery  grown  trees  over  naturally 
grown  stock  from  pasture  or  forest  lies  not  only  in  the  more 
symmetrical  crown  which  the  nurseryman  can  produce  by 
proper  attention,  but  in  the  more  compact  root  system,  with 
feeding  roots  close  to  the  stem,  which  he  can  induce,  and 
which  enables  him  to  take  it  up  and  preserve  it  more  readily 
in  its  entirety.  The  value  of  so-called  "transplanted"  or 
"several  times  transplanted,  stock"  lies  in  the  compact 
stocky  root  system,  and  in  the  properly  tramed  crown, 
produced  by  proper  pruning  at  each  transplanting.  In 
purchasing  nursery  stock,  therefore,  we  expect  not  only  live 
roots  and  buds,  but  a  good  form  of  root  system  and  crown. 


Care  in  Planting  Trees 


171 


Long,   "leggy"   roots   and   spindling  branch   systems   are 
undesirable. 

Knowing  the  ability  of  the  tree  to  replace  lost  parts,  and 
the  conditions  under  which  lost  roots  are  most  easily  replaced, 
we  can  also  prepare  trees  grown  in  field  or  forest  for  planting, 
either  while  they  are  still  in  place,  or  by  the  nurseryman's 
method,  transplanting  them  several  times. 

Whenever,  in  taking  up  trees,  roots  are  injured  or  broken, 
they  should  be  pruned  with  a  sharp,  smooth,  draw-cut, 
which  is  best  made  in  such  a  manner  that  its  face  will  be  on 
the  lower  side.  This  is  done  to  accelerate  healing  and 
avoid  rot,  which  is  more  apt  to  start  on  lacerated  wounds, 
and  to  induce  formation  of  new  root  fibers  around  the  cut 
surface. 

There  is  a  great  difference  in  different  species  as  regards 
the  abuse  in  handling  which  they  can  endure  and  the  ease 
with  which  they  repair  damage.  Generally  speaking,  those 
species  which  are  good  "sprouters",  like  willows,  poplars, 
basswood,  maples,  catalpa —  " sap-wood  trees"  — are  apl 
to  transplant  "  easily",  that  is  they  require  less  care.  Indeed, 
they  can  be  planted  as  mere  poles  and,  if  conditions  at  the 
base  are  favorable  for  root  formation,  such  poles  will  grow 
into  trees;  nor  is  there  any  reason  to  anticipate  that  such 
trees  will  not  grow  into  full-sized  and  normal  form,  the 
frequently  asserted  fears  to  the  contrary  notwithstanding. 
The  tap-root  trees,  like  the  hickories,  walnuts,  oaks,  and 
some  pines,  offer  difficulties  on  account  of  their  deep-going 
roots  unless  prepared  beforehand  by  rt.>eated  transplanting 
and  pruning,  or  by  ■  root-pruning  in  place  while  young. 
Some  f'.nv  other  species,  either  on  account  of  ini-.-lficient 
ability  to  make  new  feetling  roots  or  on  account  of  excessive 
transpiration  from  the  foliage,  are  transplanted  with  difficulty 
and  for  success  must  be  prepared  by  root-pruning  or  severe 


p 


11 


172 


Care  in  Planting  Trees 


cutting  back.  Such  species  are,  besides  the  various  hickories 
and  other  nut  trees  just  mentioned,  the  magnolias,  beeches, 
persimmon,  and  nearly  all  conifers,  which  are  noted  for 
the  paucity  and  delicacy  of  their  root-hairs  and  the  ease 
with  which  these  dry  out,  while  their  recuperative  power 
is  small;  hence  they  require  the  greatest  care  in  handling 
from  the  nursery  to  the  plant  hole.  There  is,  then,  consid- 
erable variation  among  the  species,  calling  for  more  or  less 
care  in  handling  them,  although  with  properly  prepared 
nursery  stock  only  the  following  simple  rules  need  to  be 
observed  in  order  to  be  successful. 

In  setting  a  tree  into  a  new  position  care  should  be  had 
to  make  it  easy  for  its  roots  to  resume  their  function  and  to 
recuperate  and  form  new  rootlets  as  soon  as  possible.  Three 
conditions  are  favorable  to  this  object:  sufficiently  loose  soil, 
suj/icienf  supply  of  water,  and  close  contact  of  soil  and  root. 

Plant  holes  are  usually  dug  too  small.  Roots  are  often 
crowded  '"nto  narrow  space,  offering  a  limited  feeding  area, 
and  find  themselves  placed  against  the  hard  sides  of  a  lazy 
man's  hole.  Make  the  hole  twice  as  large  in  circumference 
as  seems  necessary  and  fully  as  deep,  so  as  to  secure  a  com- 
fortable amount  of  loose  soil  for  roots  to  grow  into.  If 
practicable,  the  hoh  should  be  dug  in  the  fall  when  the  dug 
soil  will  be  comminuted  by  the  winter  frost,  and  be  in  best 
condition  for  planting  in  the  sprmg. 

If  the  soil  is  not  of  satisfactory  consistency  or  composition, 
supply  a  better  soil,  garden  mold,  or  sandy  loam,  at  least 
enough  to  imbed  the  outlying  rootlets.  This  is  especially 
often  necessary  in  street-tree  planting.  If  there  are  good 
and  poor  layers  of  soil  coming  out  of  a  plant  hole,  keep  them 
separate  and  nil  back  in,  such  a  manner  that  the  best  soil 
comes  t.  the  use  of  the  rootlets,  the  poor  layers  on  top  and 
near  the  trunk.     Soil  from  an  old  nasture  or  from  along  the 


Care  in  Planting  Trees 


173 


roadside,  paring  off  the  sod,  and,  if  need  be,  with  sand 
added,  or  well  decomposed  humus  from  a  swamp,  furnish 
good  material  for  filling  in.  Rotted  sod  may  also  be  placed 
at  the  bottom  of  the  hole  to  enrich  the  soil. 

Manure  of  any  kind  is  much  better  kept  away  from  roots; 
it  is  apt  to  do  more  harm  than  good,  both  mechanically  and 
chemically.  But  if  extra  care  is  desired,  a  mulching  or  top 
dressing  to  the  depth  of  two  or  three  inches  with  well-rotted 
manure,  spent  bark,  leaves,  or  other  litter  's  commendable, 
as  it  prevents  evaporation  from  the  soil  more  persistent!, 
than  even  cultivation.  Stones  may  also  be  used  for  this 
purpose.  If  manure  is  to  be  placed  in  the  hole  to  enrich 
the  soil,  and  especially  to  increase  its  water  capacity,  make 
sure  that  it  is  well  mixed  with  the  soil  end  kept  away  from 
direct  contact  with  the  roots. 

Especially  in  planting  street  trees,  the  d'^pth  of  the  hole, 
and  improvement  of  the  soil  is  essential.  A  hole  three 
feet  deep,  and  an  area  of  four  square  yards  of  prepared 
soil  and  an  open  space  of  at  least  one  and  a  half  yards  un- 
paved   and  cultivated,   are  the  proper  conditions   for  .ity 

trees. 

Different  species,  we  must  repeat,  make  different  demands 
on  character  and  depth  of  soil  (see  Chapter  IX),  and  hence 
m-re  or  less  care  in  the  preparation  of  the  soil  is  required 
for  different  species. 

In  actually  setting  the  tree,  the  first  care  is  not  to  set  it 
too  deep.  Many  trees  are  lost  from  this  cause,  suffocation 
resulting  by  removing  the  respiratory  organs  of  the  roots 
from  access  to  air.  That  shallow-rooted  species  especially 
do  not  like  to  ha/e  their  roots  dee})ly  buried  is  natural,  but 
is  often  not  realised  by  the  planter.  Deep-rooted  species 
also  have  some  shallow  roots  specially  designed  for  respira- 
tion and  these  must  be  kept  near  tlu-  surface.     The  proper 


m 


174 


Care  in  Planting  Trees 


ilt'plh  is  that  at  which  the  tree  had  stood  in  its  original  site, 
which  usually  can  be  readily  recognized  by  a  color  line  at 
the  base  of  the  stem.  If  planting  in  very  light  soil,  which 
is  easily  penetrated  by  air,  the  tree  may  without  harm  be 
set  somewhat  deeper  to  allow  for  settling.  In  such  soil,  to 
set  the  tree  too  high  is  even  more  detrimental  than  to  set  it 
too  low. 

To  secure  the  propei  depth,  fill  in  some  of  the  soil,  mound- 
ing it  up  and  firming  it  at  the  center  of  the  hole  to  nearly  the 
height  at  which  the  tree  is  to  stand;  then,  placing  the  tree 
over  this  mound,  arrange  its  root  system  in  natural  position, 
and  have  an  assistant  (two  can  plant  with  more  satisfaction 
than  one)  place  some  soil  lightly  over  the  outlying  roots, 
while  slightly  pumping  the  tree  up  and  down  to  get  it  just 
in  the  proper  place:  but  one  must  be  careful  not  to  have 
t'^'"  much  soil  on  the  Jots  or  to  pump  too  vigorously,  thereby 
tearing  off  rootlets.  Then,  first  fill  in  near  the  stem  suffi- 
cient to  make  the  tree  firm,  and  then  proceed  to  fill  in  over 
the  feeding  roots.  It  is  in  this  part  of  the  operation  that  the 
final  success  lies:  to  bring  rootlets  and  soil  in  closest  contact 
must  be  the  aim;  it  is  attained  by  using  fingers  and  hands, 
or  else  by  judicious  use  of  water,  small  quantities  at  a  time, 
which  will  wash  the  soil  particles  between  the  rootlets. 

The  use  of  water  requires  judgment  and  is  in  part  influ- 
enced by  the  character  and  condition  of  the  soil.  In  loose, 
sandy,  well-drained  soil  an  excess  of  moisture  can  hardly 
be  obtained.  Here,  generous  application  of  water  during 
and  after  planting  can  only  be  beneficial.  But  in  a  compact, 
stiff,  caking,  clay  soil,  a  free  use  of  water  is  ajJt  to  lump  the 
soil  and  prevent  close  contact  with  rootlets,  leaving  air 
spaces  between  roots  and  soil;  finally,  a  superabundance  of 
water  without  chance  of  drainage  at  the  bottom  may  induce 
rot.    In  such  situations,  for  best  results,  make  the  holes 


Care  in  Planting  Trees 


I7S 


deeper  than  usual,  and  fill  up  with  looser  soil,  perhaps  mix- 
ing in  sand  with  the  clay.  Or,  at  least,  exercise  care  in 
the  use  of  water,  not  giving  more  than  the  soil  can  readily 
absorb.  In  general,  avoid  applying  water  while  planting 
if  the  soil  is  fresh  and  moist,  except  towards  the  end  of  the 
operation,  when,  before  filling  in  the  last  two  inches  or  so, 
a  deliberate  dose  may  be  applied  ?.nd,  after  it  is  soaked  in, 
the  planting  may  be  finished  by  firming  the  soil  well  with 
the  foot  and  completing  the  filling  of  the  hole  with  loose 
soil.  Then  a  few  stones,  or  light  mulch,  or  other  cover 
he  placed  over  the  planting  ground  to 
St.  If  dry  weather  follows,  water  and 
weather  follows,  it  may  become  desir- 


(see  page  i' 
keep  it  cooi 
cultivate, 
able  to  remt 


le  mu'  'ling  in  order  to  avoid  choking. 


While  most  trees  ana  shrubs  will  stand  watering  all  over 
with  a  sprinkler,  and  will  be  grateful  for  it,  the  broad-leaved 
evergreens,  like  rhododendron,  resent  it,  and  their  foliage 
is  apt  to  "burn,"  turning  brown. 

If  need  be  (according  to  size),  the  trees  may  be  staked  to 
keep  thi  m  undisturbed  from  swaying  winds,  and  to  give  the 
root  system  a  chance  to  establish  itself,  taking  care  that  the 
tree  is  attached  to  the  support  in  such  a  manner  as  not  to 
be  injured  by  rubbing  off  the  bark  in  the  swaying  of  the 
wind.  Many  trees  are  lost  by  neglect  in  staking  them,  when 
by  swaying,  contact  between  soil  and  root  is  disturbed,  and 
the  latter  dries  out,  or  else  is  broken  off. 

When  planting  in  fall,  especially  with  smooth-barked 
trees  liable  to  sun-scald,  it  may  become  desirable  in  exposed 
positions  to  protect  the  bark  by  a  V-shaped  guard  or  a  lath 
screen  or  a  rope  of  straw,  which  prevents  the  drying  out. 

Such  care  in  planting,  as  described,  is  not  by  any  means 
always  taken  or  always  necessary  to  attain  success.  Under 
favorable  conditions  of  soil  or  weather,  with  vigorous  species 


K. 


il 


176 


Care  in  i^lanting  Trees 


or  specimens,  and  especially  with  smaller-sized  jjlant  mate- 
rial, less  care  will  still  jjroduce  satisfactory  results.  The 
experienced  tree  j)lanter  will  know  how  far  under  given 
conditions  he  may  neglect  the  precautions.  The  forester 
who  plants  by  the  thousand  or  million  cannot  alTord  to  ob- 
serve ..11  the  rules,  but  then  he  does  not  expert  to  have  all 
his  trees  live.  Planting  perhaps  twenty-five  to  thirty  [)cr 
cent,  more  than  he  expec's  to  start,  and  ten  times  as  many 
as  will  survive  until  har\est  time,  and  choosing  young  small 
plant  matcral,  he  reduces  the  need  of  attention  to  the 
details.  The  planter  of  street  and  lawn  trees,  however, 
who  desires  each  tree  to  live  Avill  be  the  more  successful  the 
closer  he  follows  the  details  and  the  spirit  of  the  ideal  method 
described. 

The  question  as  to  proper  time  for  Iransplanlir"  as  been 
discussed  ever  since  the  age  of  the  Greeks  anrl  Romans. 
Theoretically  speaking,  trees  may  be  transplanted  any  day 
in  the  year,  if  the  proper  precautions  are  taken,  but  prac- 
tically, it  will  be  well  to  choose  a  time  when  the  least  care 
is  needed,  i.e.,  during  the  period  when  vegetation  is  at  rest, 
fall,  winter,  or  early  spring. 

Considerations  of  weather  may  influence  the  choice  in 
different  localities:  in  regions  with  well-mark'^d  spring  and 
summer  rains,  spring  is  the  best  time;  in  regions  with  dry 
spring  and  rainy  autumn,  fall  planting  is  mdicated;  misty 
or  rainy  days  are,  of  course,  most  favorable,  except  possibly 
in  compact  clay  soils. 

Physiological  reasons  make  it  desirable  to  choose  a  time 
when,  shortly  after  jilanting,  root  growth  is  most  active. 
This  consideration  v.ould  indicate  the  fall  as  the  most  fav- 
orable season  for  deciduous  trees,  since  with  them  root 
growth  continues  into  the  winter,  and  besides,  the  absence 
of  transpiring  foliage  avoids  a  drain  of  moisture  such  as  is 


Care  in  Planting  Trees 


177 


experienced  in  conifers.  A  cool,  moist  September  calls 
for  earlier,  a  dry  and  warm  month  for  later  planting,  and 
if  drouthy  conditions  continue,  the  planting  is  best  deferred 
to  the  spring  season. 

The  best  time  for  conifers,  which  terminate  root  growth 
early  in  the  fad,  and  retain  their  foliage  during  winter  (with 
few  exceptions  like  Larch,  Bald  Cypress,  otc),  is  shortly 
before  vegetation  starts  anew  in  spring,  the  roots  beginning 
their  activity  before  the  buds. 

If  planting  in  summer  becomes  necessary,  this  is  best 
do.  after  the  period  ot  rest  in  the  root  activity,  which  occurs 
in  the  driest  month,  v,  rying  with  the  seasons,  but  in  general 
occurring  in  July  to  August.  Some  have  advocated  trans- 
planting conifers  preferably  in  August,  but  there  is  no 
special  reason  tor  this  preference  except  the  lull  in  the  vege- 
tative activity,  and  the  v.eather  conditions  may  often  be 
the  opposite  of  favorable  at  that  season.  It  is  successful 
when  rainy  weather  follows. 

Winter  planting  should  be  practised  only  when  it  is  to 
be  done  with  a  ball  of  earth  wL.ch  can  then  be  frozen,  per- 
mitting transfer  v.-ithout  disturbance  of  root  rystem. 

The  frost-heaving  which  is  apt  to  occur  in  high  elevations 
and  northern  latitudes  when  trees  are  transplanted  late  in 
the  fall  can  be  prevented  by  placing  sod  or  other  mulchini^ 

around  the  tree. 

Tlie  size  of  the  plant  material  influences  the  success  of 
the  planting  more  than  is  realized  by  many  planters.  The 
desire  to  secure  a  tree  of  good  form  and  size  is  often  better 
subserved  by  planting  a  small  one  and  oiding  the  time 
needed  tor  its  growth  than  planting  at  once  a  larger  size. 
There  are  two  reasons  for  surer  success  of  smaller  trees, 
namely,  the  fact  that  they  can  be  more  readily  taken  up 
without  loss  of  root,  and  because  the  ncccssarv  care  in  their 


If ; 


1 


178 


Care  in  Planting  Trees 


tran.s|M)rtation  and  setting  out  is  more  easily  applied,  the 
small  damage,  if  any,  being  more  readily  re[)aired.  Yet, 
but  for  unforeseen  accidents,  it  all  the  care  is  use<l  which 
we  ha\e  recommended,  there  is  no  reason  why  an  experi- 
enced tree-planter  should  not  make  a  success  of  every  trans- 
plant as  far  as  keeping  it  alive  is  concerned,  especially  if  the 
trees  are  properly  prepared  for  transplanting  (sec  below). 
It  must,  however,  not  be  overlookctl  thai  size  means  expense 
and  only  he  who  does  not  shirk  the  latter  can  make  sure  of 
success.  Still,  there  arc  objections  to  transpla  ting  very 
large  trees,  in  that  a  considerable  amount  of  cutting  back 
must  be  done  and  it  lakes  many  years  before  the  satisfactory 
form  is  reestablishal.  Especially  conifers,  which,  as  a 
rule,  do  not  admit  much  pruning,  are  best  planted  in  small 
sizes  unless  they  (an  be  moved  with  a  ball  of  earth.  Yet 
the  writer  knows  of  a  case  of  successful  moving  of  a  whole 
avenue  of  Norway  s])ruce,  thirty  lo  lorty  feet  in  height, 
without  such  precaution. 

As  a  rule,  while  for  forest  planting  two-  to  five-year-old 
plants  are  pref -rred,  the  street  i)lanter  will  wish  to  set  trees 
which  have  carried  their  crown  above  man-height  or  nearly 
so,  and  the  lawn  jjlanter  may  also  best  remain  within  these 
limits.  The  trans])lanting  of  larger  trees  than  eight  to  ten 
feet  at  most  in  height  is  a  sj)ecialty  which  is  better  left  to 
experienced  hands.  It  requires  lime  (two  or  three  days), 
labor  (eight  lo  twelve  men),  and  expense,  which  should  not 
be  lightly  undertaken,  es{jecially  as  it  is  doubtful  in  result. 
It  is  best  done  with  trees  prepared  for  the  operation. 

Large  trees  —  the  writer  has  transplanted  centenarian 
oaks  successfully  —  may  be  and  should  be  prepared  for 
the  o])eration  by  digging  ".  ditch,  two  or  three  feet  wide, 
around  the  tree  at  a  d  .ncc  propf)rt innate  to  its  size,  cut- 
ting through  all  llic  side  roots,  leaving  the  tap-root,  if  any, 


179 


i  > 


ly 


i8o 


Care  in  Planting  Trees 


intact,  filling  the  ditch  with  rich  garden  mold  or  loam, 
and  keejMng  it  well  watered.  At  the  same  time  the  tree 
must  be  suitably  braced,  and  projjortionately  cut  back. 
New  feeding  roots  will  be  established  in  the  rich  mold. 
Within  a  season  or  two  the  tree  is  ready  for  transplanting 
with  a  compact  root  system.  It  is  then  best  taken  up  with 
a  ball  of  earth,  leaving  the  new  roots  undisturbed  and, 
where  practicable,  freezing  the  ball  of  earth  around  them. 
In  setting  such  trees,  secure  bracing  is  one  of  the  main  [joints, 
so  as  to  avoid  swaying  by  the  winds. 

It  is  sometimes  possible  to  find  large  trees  fit  for  transplant- 
ing under  such  conditions  as  to  make  the  preparation  just 
described  unnecessary,  and  to  permit  taking  up  practically 
the  entire  natural  root  system,  just  as  from  a  nursery  bed, 
and  to  transplant  with  naked  roots.  But  this  requires  still 
greater  care,  and  since  in  moving  very  large  trees  a  consider- 
able amount  of  mechanical  apjjaratus  for  safe  transporta- 
tion is  refjuired  in  order  to  pre\ent  injuries,  s]>ecial  wagons 
being  i)atented  for  the  i)ur])ose,  this  is  altogether  a  jnece 
of  work  to  be  entrusted  to  a  specialist,  although  by  keeping 
in  mind  tree  physiology  as  explained,  there  is  no  difi'iculty 
in  it.  Increased  care  not  to  expose  the  roots  to  the  air  is 
required  for  conifers,  and  in  these,  success  can  only  be  ex- 
pected with  small  sizes,  or  with  medium  sizes  when  the 
roots  can  be  kept  in  continuous  soil  envelope. 

Altogether,  the  use  of  large  trees  is  advisable  only  in  rare 
cases;  it  is  exjjensive  and  uncertain  in  resuUs  at  best, 
although  some  exjierts  seem  to  be  more  than  usually 
successful.' 

Perhaps  a  few  words  regarding  spacing  of  trees,  in  addi- 
tion to  what  has  been  said  in  regard  to  spacing  of  street 

'See  Isaac  Huks  &  Son,  Wcstbury  Station,  N.  Y.,  and  Peterson  Nurs 
ery  Co.,  Chicago,  who  make  a  specialty  of  transplanting  large  trees. 


tl 


I 


i8i 


l82 


Care  in  Planting  Trees 


trees,  will  not  be  amiss,  for  it  is  a  difficult  question,  and 
rarely  discussed  with  good  reasons. 

The  object  to  be  attained  and  the  character  of  the  plant 
material  must  form  the  basis  for  consideration.  In  forest 
growing,  with  small  plant  material,  where  the  immediate 
object  is  as  soon  as  possible  to  secure  a  close  soil  cover, 
and  the  ultimate  object  to  secure  branchless  boles,  the  spac- 
ing is  kept  between  three  and  six  feet,  rarely  wider,  whereby 
both  objects  are  best  secured, when  of  the  1,500  to5,ooo  plants 
set  out  on  an  acre,  not  more  than  250  to  350  are  expected 
or  allowed  to  live  till  harvest  time. 

In  ornamental  planting  we  have  to  consider  also  the 
immediate  and  the  future  effects,  which,  through  the  growth 
of  the  trees,  change  continually.  The  landscape  gardener 
must  foresee  the  ultimate  relations  into  which  the  plant 
material  will  grow,  the  final  sky  line  which  it  will  produce, 
but  if  he  planted  solely  with  reference  to  that  future,  he 
would  miss  producing  immediate,  or  at  least  early,  pleasing 
effects.  Like  the  forester,  therefore,  he  must  plant  more 
than  is  finally  to  remain.  He  deliberately  designs  to  remove 
at  the  proper  time  some  of  the  trees  which  he  has  set  out 
in  '  rdcr  to  produce  effects  before  they  have  attained  their 
full  stature.  The  failure  of  tlie  future  manager  of  a  ])ark 
in  applying  the  axe  at  the  proper  time  has  spoiled  the  artistic 
design  of  a  Downing  in  the  Smithsonian  grounds  in  Wash- 
ington, and  is  spoiling  many  other  parks  in  this  country, 
wherever  a  monkey  love  of  trees  on  the  i)arl  of  the  public 
has  tied  the  hands  of  the  manager  and  he  dare  not  disturb 
the  original  planting. 

There  are  two  methods  of  using  trees  in  ornamental  plant- 
ing, namely,  either  in  groups,  or  in  single  specimens.  Closer 
sjjacing  is  indicated  in  the  former,  wider  spacing  in  the  lat- 
ter case.    \\  here  specimen  trees  are  planted   they  should 


Care  in  Planting  Trees 


183 


have  ample  space,  so  as  to  avoid  all  interference  and  give 
ample  distance  from  disturbing  effects.  To  gauge  its 
proper  space,  the  planter  must  be  somewhat  familiar  with 
the  spreading  habit  of  the  species,  which  may  vary  from 
ten  feet  for  many  of  the  smaller  conifers,  to  a  hundred  feet 
and  more  for  the  spreading  oaks.  The  space  between 
may  then  be  filled  out  with  temporary  specimens,  which 
must  be  removed  as  soon  as  they  begin  interfering  with  the 
favorite,  or  else  with  low  shrubbery. 

For  streets  and  avenues,  where  not  the  single  specimen, 
but  a  row  loosely  connected  is  desired,  a  distance  of  at 
least  thirty  to  forty  feet  will  suffice  for  the  majority  of  species 
that  are  usually  planted,  and  leave  enough  space  to  permit 
free  circulation  of  air  and  light.  With  low  trees  this  may 
be  reduced  to  fifteen  to  twenty  feet.  Contrary  to  orthodox 
belief,  the  writer  would  not  hesitate  for  the  sake  of  quicker 
shading  effect,  to  put  temporary  trees  half  way  between  the 
n.jrmanent  ones,  even  of  a  different  species,  to  be  removed 
en  the  latter  require  it.  But,  to  be  sure,  the  same  lack 
of  judicious  use  of  the  axe  at  the  i)roper  time,  as  is  usual  in 
the  parks,  is  apt  to  frustrate  the  results  of  such  a  plan. 

When  planting  groups,  where  not  the  form  of  the  single 
specimen,  but  the  combination  of  foliage  of  different  kina 
is  sought,  when  a  judicious  combination  of  shade-enduring 
slow  growers,  and  light-needing  rapid  growers  is  made,  a 
distance  varying  between  five  and  fifteen  feet,  and  with  low 
shrubbery  even  closer,  will  usually  be  found  satisfactory. 

The  tendency  is  always  to  plant  closer  than  desirable,  nor 
is  it  objectionable,  provided  the  planting  is  thinned  out  at 
the  i)roper  time  by  the  use  of  the  axe  or  by  removing  and 
transplanting  undesirable  or  interfering  parts. 


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ii 


184 


CHAPTER  Vlil 


ESTHETIC    FORESTRY    OR    WOODLAND    PARK 
MANAGEMENT » 

HE  beautiful  must  be  taken  care  of;  the  useful 
will  take  care  of  itself." 

It  is  questionable  whether  this  remark  of 
Goethe's  is  aj  true  to-day  as  it  was  in  his 
time.  It  seems  that  we  have  -entered  upon  a  period  when 
the  esthetic  aspects  of  our  suroundings  occupy  us  almost 
to  the  extent  to  which  the  ola  Greeks  were  accustomed  to 
develop  them.  At  least,  a  momentum  has  been  set  up  by 
the  j)reachers  of  the  beautiful  which  bids  fair  to  carry  us  on 
in  this  direction  with  lit'.le  elTort. 

Forestry  as  a  useful  occupation  has  struggled  hard,  if 
not  as  yet  in  vain,  for  recognition  in  this  country;  it  is  prac 
tically  still  an  unknown  art,  and  now  we  are  already  discuss- 
ing esthetic  fc  stry.  Forestry  is,  in  the  first  place,  not  one 
of  the  esthetic  arts,  but  an  industrial  art,  the  objecL  of  which 
is  similar  to  that  of  agriculture;  namely,  the  management 
of  the  soil  for  the  profi  action  of  wood  crops.  Yet  the  nat- 
ural beauty,  the  sylvan  charm  and  woodsy  tlavor  of  a  forest, 
suggest  readily  the  esthetic  element  whicli  stimulates  our 
artistic  sense.  Indee.!,  sylvan  beauty  is  an  "inevitable  by- 
product of  the  forest." 

Even  the  forester,  w'^(    j  business  it  is  to  grow  logs  rather 

'  Parts  of  this  chapter  were  published  before  in  Second  Report  of  the 
American  Park  and  Outdoor  Ait  Assoiiation.  iS()8. 

i8s 


1 86 


Esthetic  Forestry 


than  trees,  whose  idea  of  a  forest  is  a  mass  of  trees  V\e  a 
massed  army,  straight,  tall,  strijiped  of  dl  unnecessary 
branches,  cannot  close  his  eyes  entirely  to  the  beauties  of 
the  object  of  his  industrial  activity.  Hence  the  foresters  of 
Europe  who  manage  forest  properties  mainly  or  merely  for 
the  money  revenue  that  may  be  derived  from  the  sale  of 
timber  have  in  many  instances  had  an  eye  toward  the  utiliza- 
tion of  the  artistic  elements  at  their  disposal,  at  least  in  some 
corner  of  their  districts. 

In  England,  the  artistic  aspects  of  forestry  have  probably 
become  more  prominent  than  on  the  Continent,  the  rich 
landed  proprietors  holding  their  woodlands  mainly  for 
game  preserves  and  i)lcasure  grounds;  their  forest  manage- 
ment becoming  more  am'  more  park  management.  But 
it  has  been  reserved  for  our  people,  even  before  industrial 
forestry  has  become  an  established  art.  to  set  aside  for  park 
purposes  immense  woodland  areas,  whore  the  practice  of 
esthetic  forestry  is  called  for. 

The  various  national  parks  belong  to  this  class;  into  which 
has  also  fallen  the  forest  preserve  of  the  State  of  New  York, 
although  originally  designed  for  (juite  a  different  purpose. 
The  Metropolitan  Park  system  of  Boston  also  comprises 
large  areas  of  native  woodlands  which  it  is  intended  to  leave 
as  such  for  pleasure  purposes,  so  that  we  may  speak  of  them 
as  forests  m  which  esthetic  forestry  is  to  be  practised.  Here 
perhaps  for  the  first  time  we  fmd  a  conscious  attempt  at 
making  the  esthetic  side  in  forest  areas  paramount  on  a 
large  scale. 

In  other  1  ,o  parks,  like  Central  and  Bronx  Parks  in 
New  York,  Forest  Park  in  St.  Louis,  and  Soldiers'  Home  in 
Washington,  small  areas  of  forest  growth  are  left  to  natural 
development,  or  at  least  they  are  natural  woodlands,  in- 
tended so  to  remain  as  far  as  the  park  managers  may  j)ermit 


Esthetic  Forestry 


187 


In  the  larger  woodk-d  park.,  finally,  such  as  the  Adiron- 
dack Forest  Preserve,  the  rational  manner  of  carrying  an 
esthetic  forestry  is,  after  all,  that  which  the  German  forester 
practises  in  those  places  where  a  large  community  has  ready 
access  to  his  industrial  forest,  and  uses  it  incidor tally  as  a 
pleasure  ground.  He  has  regard  to  both  the  material  and 
esthetic  interests  of  the  forest,  managing  it  for  wood-crops 
and  revenue  without  overlooking  the  pleasure  it  may  alTord; 
making  it  accessible  by  wagon  and  f-no^,  providing  springs 
and  shady  nooks  with  rustic  resting  places,  and  combin- 
ing, as  architecture   usuaUy  does,  the  beautiful  with  the 

useful. 

The  forester's  road  system  may  be  none  the  less  perfect 
from  the  purely  utilitarian  view  because  it  meets  the  demands 
of   art;   the  by  paths  into  the  depths  of   svlvan   recesses 
are  not  less  useful  because  they  may  be  made  with  due 
regard  to  pleasant  windings  and  easy  travel;  the  thrifty, 
young  plantation  will  present  aspects  of  beaut;   as  well  as 
of  interest  to  the  visitor  not  less  delightful  because  of  the 
frankly  acknowledged  purpose  which  it  is  'inally  to  serve. 
Even  the  weU-conducted  logging  operal.-   1  wiU  have  its 
attraction  to  him  who  is  not  saddled  with  a  monkey  love 
of  trees.    Some  of  the  picturesque  effects  of  the  crooked 
and  gnarled  specimens  of  oak  and  beech,  the  true  forester 
will,  to  be  sure,  reduce  to  a  minimum,  but  in  the  inspiring 
■■ubiimity  of  lofty  boles  he  will  substitute  other  effects  not 
less  artistic  because  the  utilitarian  object  is  apparent.    Fi- 
nally, the  beauty  of  a  well-conducted  forest  management 
with  its  svstem  and  order  in  the  forest,  as  well  as  in  the  books, 
will  appeal  to  the  thoughtful  visitor  and,  if  he  finds  that  aU 
this  pleasure  can  be  had  for  nothing,  nay,  with  a  financial 
benefit,  by  which  his  taxes  are  reduced,  he  will  bless  those 
esthetic  idealists,  who  starting   from  an  entirely  opposite 


Esthetic  Forestry 


point  of  view  have  taught  him  to  combine  industrial  and 
esthetic  art,  pleasure,  and  profit. 

In  the  smaller  woodland  parks  and  woodland  portions 
of  city  parks,  such  management  is  probably  rarely  prac- 
ticable, hence  not  a  forester  but  a  park  manager  and 
landscape  gardener  is  here  in  place. 

A  pleasure  forest  or  park  woodland  is  quite  different 
from  the  usual  pii  asure  park.  Both  the  objects  and  the 
methods  of  treatment  are  different.  The  park  is  to  give 
pleasure  mainly  by  its  artistic  elements,  the  forest  or  wood- 
land mainly  by  its  natural  elements;  the  park  exhibits  art 
with  a  superimposition  of  naturalness  upon  artificially 
created  or  preserved  groups  of  trees;  the  pleasu-e  forest 
relies  upon  its  natural  naturalness,  with  merely  a  helping 
hand  toward  artistic  appearance. 

Hence  a  let-alone  policy  is  much  more  desirable  in  the 
forest  than  is  possible  to  permit  in  the  park.     But,  while 
the  proper  principle  in  the  woodland  park  is  to  let  Nature 
take  its  course,  that  does  not  mean  that  man  should  not  inter- 
fere with  Nature,  for  Nature  is  not   always  esthetic,  she 
creates  many  things  that  are  not  beautiful,  and  leaves  undone 
many  that   man  conceives  as  enhancing  natural  beauty, 
for  Nature  works  without  object,  not  even  the  object  to 
please.    Hence  the  axe  and  saw  are  constantly  in  demand, 
here  to  remove  a  stag-headed  tree  that  has  lost  its  beauty 
and  interferes  with  a  better  progeny,  or  an  old  trunk  that 
is  not  only  ugly  in  its  unsoundness,  but  breeds  the  enemies 
of  the  healthy;  there  a  sprawling  limb  needs  lopping,  or 
even  a  healthy  tree  or  group  of  trees  must  be  invaded  to 
free  a  rarer  component  of  the  forest  which  is  being  choked 
out  by  its  sturdier  competitors.    There  is  no  part  of  the  park 
that  really  requires  more  judgment  in  its  treatment  than 
this  natural  woodland. 


Esthetic  Forestry 


189 


While  the  well-meaning  but  poorly-informed  tree-loving 
public  improperly  resents  the  interference  with  Nature, 
advocating  the  extreme  let-alone  i)olicy,  the  park  manager 
may  fall  into  the  other  extreme  of  trying  to  assist  Nature 
too  much.  The  mistake  which  otherwise  good  park  man- 
agers are  apt  to  make  is  that  they  transfer  their  conceptions 
which  fit  the  tree  on  the  lawn  to  the  tree  in  the  forest.  The 
tree  on  the  lawn,  single  or  in  groups,  we  admire  for  its  sym- 
metrical individual  form,  which  is  secured  by  preventing 
interference  on  the  part  of  neighbors.  Tn  the  forest  it  is 
not  the  individual,  but  the  ensemble,  that  pleases.  Thus 
the  asymmetry  of  the  whole  is  to  be  considered  rather  than 
the  symmetrical  development  of  the  individual.  Here  the 
trees  should  be  rather  crowded  sc  as  to  assume  the  type  of 
the  real  forest-grown  tree.  Pruning  to  form  would  here  be 
out  of  place  and  the  orderliness  of  the  formal  park  \  Hope- 
less mistake. 

Nevertheless,  improvement  and  assistance  to  Nature  is 
by  no  means  excluded,  but  here  we  must  let  Nature  bad 
and  only  follow  er  up  to  correct  her  esthetic  errors;  while 
in  the  formal  park  the  landscape  gardener  must  be  positive, 
here  his  art  must  be  subordinate,  confined  almost  entirely 
to  negative  measures. 

Each  forest  in  its  virgin  condition  exhibits  a  different 
type  according  to  its  composition,  and  so  each  woodland 
park  may  differ  and  yet  fulfil  its  function;  in  other  words, 
no  hard  and  fast  rules  as  to  its  appearance  can  be  laid  down. 
If  a  bit  of  hemlock  forest  has  luckily  become  part  of  the 
park,  or  a  growth  of  pine  or  spruce,  it  would  be  poor  taste 
to  disturb  their  "purity"  by  introducing  admixtures  or 
undergrowth.  In  the  very  monotony  of  the  dense  conifer 
forest,  with  its  tall  clean  symmetrical  shafts  of  even  develop- 
ment and  its  somber  shade  excluding  all  undergrowth  lies 


^n 


M 


II 


1 90 


Esthetic  Forestry 


its  distinctive  charm  and  grandeur.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
hardwood  forest  with  its  variety  of  mixture  demands 
variety  of  development  in  its  component  members  and 
shrubbery  in  varied  form.  Between  these  two  extremes 
all  kinds  of  gradations  are,  of  course,  conceivable:  the  com- 
position and  age  of  the  particular  growth  will  justify  more 
or  less  close  approach  to  the  one  or  the  other  type  which 
the  park  manager  should  maintain. 

There  are  at  least  three  directions  in  which  his  judgment 
must  be  exercised;  first,  as  to  the  location  of  the  woodland 
park  portions;  if  there  be  any  choice,  secondly,  as  to  the 
outlines  of  these  portions;  and  thirdly,  as  to  the  composition 
and  interior  form. 

Usually,  perhaps,  when  natural  woodlands  are  included 
within  park  areas  there  is  but  little  choice  as  to  their  loca- 
tion; it  is  preordained,  and  only  when  new  plantings  are 
to  be  made  is  such  choice  possible,  except  that  the  existing 
woodland  can  be  altered  in  its  aspects  and  extent. 

Where  the  entire  park  is  a  natural  woodland,  it  should  be 
the  aim  to  bring  into  it  as  much  variety  as  the  character 
of  the  forest  type  permits.  V^ariety  pleases,  not  uniformity. 
Dense  thickets  here  suggest  the  depth  and  distance  of  the 
wild  woods,  and  even  in  a  small  area  make  the  size  appear 
greater  and  extend  its  limits  in  imagination.  A  dense  stand 
of  clean  boles  without  underbrush  suggests  the  mystery  of 
sylvan  solitude;  while  a  more  open  stand  with  a  grassy  floor 
invites  one  to  a  ramble  among  the  trees  leading  to  small 
openings  of  grassy  glades,  or,  if  possible,  to  a  formal  park 
with  lawns  and  shapely  single  trees  in  groups.  The  treat- 
ment, of  course,  is  somewhat  dependent  on  the  size  of  the 
whole,  each  separate  type  requiring  certain  proportions  in 
order  to  be  effective.  Too  much  variety  on  a  small  area 
may  become  undesirable  because  unnatural. 


Esthetic  Forestry 


igi 


In  a  formal  park,  the  dense  parts  are  best  disposed  on  the 
outskirts,  which  aids  in  increasing  the  feeling  of  distance 
and  in  excluding  the  outer  world;  but  in  larger  parks  an  occa- 
sional belt  of  natural  woodland  within  its  borders  adds  to 
the  "vvoodsiness"  of  the  whole. 

Where  natural  woodland  is  skirted  by  lawns  or  grassy 
glades,  particular  attention  is  to  be  paid  to  the  character  of 
the  outlines.  While  there  is  not  necessarily  an  objection 
to  a  straight  division  line  between  the  two  tyi)es,  an  uneven 
line  is,  as  a  rule,  more  i)leasing.  A  change  from  the  open 
glade  into  an  open  stand  on  a  more  or  less  straight  line  is 
indicated  with  a  coniferous  forest,  which,  if  young,  will 
have  its  boles  beset  with  branches  to  the  base,  or,  if  older, 
with  its  straight,  uniform  trunks  standing  separate,  will 
bring  out  'lie  conti.*it  between  its  dark  recesses  and  the 
sunny  outside.  With  the  deciduous  and  mixed  woods, 
undulating  lines  will  usually  be  found  more  pleasing  and, 
if  possible,  the  undulations  should  generally  be  deep,  jut- 
ting out  with  sharper  angles  into  the  open,  with  gentler 
roundings  on  the  sinuate  portions,  the  juttings  out  being  of 
varying  lengths. 

These  outlines  should  be  kept  as  dense  as  possible  with 
undergrowth  in  the  projections;  only  in  the  sinuous  parts 
should  they  be  more  or  less  open,  inviting  to  inc"  iiade. 

The  form  of  the  outline  should  to  some  cxtci  .xow  the 
contour  of  the  land  (unless  it  be  flat),  rounding  hillocks, 
following  up  ravines,  and  encircling  depressions.  There  is 
need  of  constant  attention  and  use  of  the  axe,  to  keep  the 
outlines  dense  and  in  good  form. 

If  any  planting  is  to  be  done  on  the  woodland  border  to 
effect  the  gradual  change  from  the  formal  park  or  garden 
to  the  natural  wood,  great  care  should  be  used  in  the  choice 
of  material,  especially  avoiding  violent  contrasts  and  select- 


:)MM»MUJrSS. 


192 


Esthetic  Forestry 


ing  as  far  aS  possible  species  of  native  growth,  or  at  least 
closely  related  to  those  which  occur  in  the  woofiland  itself, 
and  such  as  are  surely  adapted  to  climate  and  soil.  In 
studying  the  native  flora,  suggestions  will  readily  come. 

If  the  object  is  to  fill  out  an  open  growth  at  the  ba.se,  it  is 
essential  lo  plant  only  shade-enduring  trees  and  .shrubs,  such 
as  the  Rhod'xlendrons  (e.g.  R.  acerifolium  and  aliti/olium), 
Azaleas,  Phuadelphu.s,  Daphne  and  Privet,  and  some  of  the 
\'iburnums  among  the  shrubs;  and  of  trees  the  Yew,  Holly, 
Spindle-tree,  Blue  lieech,  Ironwood,  Dogv.(HKl,  with  such 
small  trees  as  Service-tree,  White  and  IMack  Thorn,  and 
Mountain-ash.  In  front  and  in  the  more  open  places  may 
be  planted  some  of  the  more  light-demanding  shrubs. 

Although  the  interior  is  to  be  left  to  Nature  as  far  as  pos- 
sible, yet  it  requires  the  correcting  band  of  man  in  improv- 
ing the  composition.  It  goes  without  saying  that  decrepit 
and  crippled  specimens  and  all  dead  wootl  must  be  removed, 
for  these  are  unsighdy  features;  but  occasionally  malforma- 
tions, such  as  a  gnarly  oak,  or  a  low-topped,  spreading  beech, 
may  recommend  themselves  for  retention  on  account  of 
their  picturesqueness. 

We  have  to  realize  that  constant  change  is  the  law  of  nature, 
and  that  therefore  a  natural  woodland  never  remains  as  it 
is,  any  more  than  does  a  formal  park;  nor  can  we  in  any 
way  avoid  the  change,  although  we  can  give  it  direction  by 
the  timely  u.sc  of  the  a.xe  and  pos.sibly  of  the  i)lanling  tool. 

In  a  previous  chapter  it  was  pointed  out  that  the  differ- 
ent species  of  trees  can  be  classified  as  to  the  amount  of 
light  they  need  or  of  shade  which  they  can  endure.  In 
addition,  we  can  also  classify  them  according  to  the  persist- 
ency of  height  growth  and,  to  some  extent,  to  the  persistency 
of  life.  With  such  classification  of  the  species  which  we 
find  in  our  woodland,  we  can  predict  the  likelihood  of  the 


.va,",  "^.v  ». 


Esthetic  Forestry 


193 


permanency  of  our  comix)sition.    We  can  make  sure,  for 
example,  that  the  tolerant  and  persistent  growers,  such  as 
the  beech,  the  sugar  maple,  the  holly,  the  hemlock,  the  firs 
and  spruces,  will  be  able  to  hold  their  own  in  the  struggle 
:.:  Ught  and  air-space;  while  such  extremely  light-needing 
and  not  persistent  growers  as  the  aspen,  white  birch,  black 
locust,  soft  maple,  will  soon  be  crowded  out;  finaay  th"  light- 
needing  and  yet  persistent  growers,  like  the  Tulip  tree,  the 
oaks,  the  Yellow  Birch,  and  the  pines,  if  their  heads  are  once 
above  their  neighbors,  will  be  able  to  maintain  themselves. 
With  such  knowledge  we  can  formulate  the  general  policy 
namely,  to  reduce  more  or  less  rapidly  the  short-lived,  iight- 
needing  species,  which  cannot  maintain  themselves  in  a  -nix- 
ture;  and  to  keep  the  last-named  species  with  their  heads 
free  and  preferably  in  small  groups,  whm  the  central  ones 
at  least  will  maintain  themselves,  these  on  the  outside  of  the 
group  succumbing  gradually  and  being  removed  as  dead 
wood.    In  this  way  these  species  have  maintained  them- 
selves in  the  natural  forest,  otherwise  the  shade-endurers 
would  occupy  all  the  ground,  where  not  prevented  by  unsuit- 
able soil  conditions.    These  latter  alone  will  insure  per- 
manency and  should  in  most  cases  form  the  bulk  of  the 
woods,  for  in  addition  to  permanency  they  also  furnish  the 
best  protection  to  the  soil  by  their  shade  and  abundant  leaf 

fall. 

There  is  one  other  feature  influencing  permanency  which 
is  often  overlooked.  Much  of  the  woodland  of  hardwoods 
or  deciduous  trees  which  comes  into  park  use  is  composed 
of  coppice,  i.e.,  sprouts  from  the  stump,  the  trees  having 
been  cut  again  and  again  and  being  replaced  by  stool  shoots, 
not  seedlings.  Such  stool  shoots  are  of  the  nature  of  branches 
from  the  original  bole,  and  do  not  grow  in  the  same  manner 
as  do  trees  which  grow  from  seedlings.    Although  develop- 


194 


Esthetic  Forestry 


ing  very  rapidly  at  the  start,  they  cease  in  height  growth 
much  sooner  than  seedUng  trees.  In  addition,  not  only 
have  the  stumps  usually  been  injured  by  careless  axemen, 
but  such  woodlands  have  generally  been  burned  over  re- 
peatedly, thus  injuring  the  stumps  by  fire;  as  a  result  decay 
has  set  in,  and  it  is  difficult  to  find  really  heaUhy  stumps. 
The  sprouts  may  nevertheless  grow  up  into  quite  respect- 
able trees,  but  they  are  on  an  unstable  basis  and  are  short- 
lived. The  woodland  parks  of  the  Boston  Metropolitan 
park  system  are  probably  largely  made  up  of  such  sprout- 
lane  ). 

The  proper  policy  here  is  to  gradually  replace  sprouts  by 
seedlings,  either  favoring  volunteer  growth  of  the  latter  or 
deliberately  securing  them  from  natural  seeding  of  the 
sprouts  or  by  planting.  In  this  planting,  the  light  re- 
quirements of  the  species  used  must  be  carefully  considered. 
Moreover,  it  must  not  be  forgotten  that  the  seedUngs  grow 
more  slowly  than  the  sprouts,  which,  therefore,  are  vigorous 
competitors  and  must  be  kept  constantly  in  check  until  the 
planted  specimens  are  well  established  and  can  take  care 
of  themselves. 

In  the  selection  of  plant  material,  the  possibility  of  new 
introductions  is  offered,  but,  while  variety  in  composition 
[jleases,  yet  the  choice  must  be  made  with  circumspection, 
not  only  as  regards  the  capacity  of  permanent  mainte- 
nance, but  of  adequacy.  "  Beauty  must  be  true,  good,  and 
adequate":  the  w  introductions  must  be  adapted  to  the 
locahty,  preferably  indigenous  or,  at  least,  not  entirely  inhar- 
monious with  the  main  body  of  the  woods,  they  must  have 
elements  of  form  or  other  qualities  which  make  their  intro- 
duction appear  natural  and  desirable,  and  they  must  be 
adequate  to  the  effect  desired.  If,  for  instance,  coniferous 
growth  is  absent,  some  shade-enduring  spruces,  firs,  or  hem- 


Esthetic  Forestry 


195 


locks  may  come  in,  singly  and  in  groups,  especially  in 
glades  and  depressions,  or,  where  an  opening  exists  on  an 
elevation,  the   light-needing  pines  and  larches  may  find  a 

place.  . 

Whatever  may  be  true  in  the  formal  pleasure  park,  m 
the  pleasure  forest  it  is  not  beautiful  to  plant  all  kinds  of 
trees  in  all  sorts  of  places,  merely  for  the  sake  of  variety. 
The  great  charm  of  the  pleasure  forest  lies  in  its  naturalness. 
We  must  insist  again  that  naturalness  is  the  object  of  the 
woodland  park.     Hence  in  thinning  out  we  would  not,  as 
is  recommended  by  some,  cut  with  reference  to  the  individ- 
ual merit  or  beauty  of  the  single  tree,  removing  interfering 
trees  to  allow  it  to  develop  freely.     On  the  contrary,  except 
to  prevent  suppression  of  specially  desirable  species  or  mdi- 
viduals,  natural  adjustment  should  be  aUowed  to  take  its 
course,  the  axe  correcting  rather  than  directing  development. 
Nevertheless,  we  want  to  have  it  well  understood   that 
"whether  in  woodland  or  plantation,  the  work  of  the  axe 
is  never  completed;  it  is  vandalism  to  lay  it  away."     The 
cutting  must,  however,  be  done  under  a  well-conceived  plan, 
with  a  knowledge  of  what  its  effect  should  be  and  will  be. 

It  is  usually  best  to  select  and  mark  in  summer  the  trees 
to  be  cut,  for  then  conditions  of  the  leaf  canopy  —  the  decid- 
ing feature -can  be  easily  seen,  but  the  actual  work  of 
removal  is  better  left  to  the  winter  months,  when  it  inter- 
feres least  with  the  pleasure  of  visitors. 

While  orderlv  appearance  makes  necessary  the  removal 
of  the  fallen  leaves  from  lawns,  it  is  worse  than  waste  of 
time  to  do  this  in  the  woodland  park,  unless  necessitated  by 
the  warfare  on  some  insect  jiest. 

As  regards  the  insect  pests,  it  is  evident  that  spraying  is 
practically  excluded,  and  hence  collecting,  mechanical 
destruction,  or  bailing  are  the  only  practical  measures. 


196 


Esthetic  Forestry 


So  great  a  variety  of  conditions  are  po'sible  in  such  wood- 
land parks,  that  it  is  well-nigh  impossible  to  give  specific 
rules  as  to  their  management  and  only  the  general  principles 
can  be  l^id  down,  upon  which  with  judgment  the  park  man- 
ager must  base  his  operations. 


CHAPTER  IX 
CARE   IN   THE   CHOICE   OF   PLANT   MATERIAL 

ALTHOUGH  this  book  is  not  designed  to  be  a 
guide  in  the  laying  out  and  planting  of  grounds, 
it    seemed    nevertheless    germane    and    desir- 

able  to  add  a  chapter  on  the  selection  of  plant 

material,  inasmuch  as  the  after-care  is  to  some  extent  iniiu- 
enced  by  the  original  choice  of  trees.    Much  trouble  can  be 
avoided  in  caring  for  trees,  if  the  right  kinds  of  trees  have 
been  planted,  since,  as  we  have  seen,  the  diflferent  species 
are  more  or  less  liable  to  damage  by  insect  pests,  fungi, 
and  other  injury,  are  more  or  less  resistant,  are  more  or  less 
hardy    more  or  less  adaptable  to  unfavorable  situations, 
more  or  less  easily  kept  in  satisfactory  form  and  condition. 
To  be  sure,  if  we  were  to  plant  only  those  which  are 
entirely  free  from  troubles,  the  list  would  be  a  smaU  one, 
and  the  gratification  of  our  tastes  would  be  scanty.    Yet 
one  should  at  least  know  what  to  expect  by  going  beyond 
this  select  list  of  the  few  species. 

Looking  through  the  following  enumeration  we  shall 
find  th"t,  after  all,  a  large  number  of  species  are  practically 
frer  .rom  trouble,  if  properly  placed  and  tended.  W  e  must, 
however,  realize  what  has  been  intimated  in  another  chap- 
ter namely,  that  insect  pests  and  infections,  i.e.,  fungus 
diseases,  have  an  opportunity  for  spreading  when  the  same 
host  plant  is  multipUed.  A  city  of  elms,  for  example  is 
naturally  apt  to  become  a  city  of  *.-lra-beetles,  the  elm  other- 

»97 


1  m 


1 98 


Choice  of  Plant  Material 


^  i 


!5 


wise  being  no  more  subject  to  insect  pests  than  many  other 
species  which  are  supposed  to  be  imn.une,  because  the 
opportunity  for  extraordinary  multiplication  of  its  enemies 
has  not  been  given. 

General  Considerations.  In  addition  to  econ<  ic  tree- 
planting  for  orchard  and  forestry  purposes,  whicii  lie  out- 
side the  scope  of  this  book,  there  are  three  objects  for  which 
trees  are  planted,  namely,  shade,  ornament,  and  botanical 
interest.  The  selection  of  plant  material  will  in  the  first 
place  be  influenced  by  the  prominence  which  one  or  the 
other  of  these  objects  may  assume,  and  it  will  in  addition 
be  circumscribed  by  the  situation  and  space  at  command. 
Different  points  of  view  will  guide  the  selection  for  street 
and  avenue  planting,  for  planting  in  yards  and  small  places, 
for  planting  on  lawns  in  small  or  large  parks,  and  for  plant- 
ing with  special  purposes  in  view,  like  the  binding  of  shore 
or  dunes. 

In  all  cases,  however,  except  where  the  botanical  interest 
—  i.e.,  the  collection  of  si)ecimen  trees  —  is  uppermost, 
the  two  paramount  considerations  are  adaptation  to  climate 
and  adaptation  to  soil. 

While  in  street  planting  and  in  public  parks,  only  trees 
of  proven  adai)tability  should  be  used,  in  other  cases  experi- 
ment is  not  excluded,  although  there  should  be  at  least  a 
reasonable  expectation  of  success  to  warrant  the  choice, 
which  should  be  made  with  a  knowledge  of  the  })oints  dis- 
cussed in  Chapter  III,  concerning  the  selection  from  local- 
ities of  the  most  unfavorable  climate  in  which  the  species  is 
at  home,  or  at  least  from  a  locality  which  compares  most 
nearly  to  that  to  which  the  specimen  is  to  be  transferred. 

As  regards  adaptation  to  soil,  we  must  emphasize  again 
that  in  most  cases  physical  conditions,  especially  of  water- 
supply,   are  of  more  moment    than   chemical   composition; 


General  Considerations 


199 


and  that  aU  species  thrive  best  on  one  kind  of  soil  (see  page 
24)  but  some  can  be  grown  under  less  favorable  conditions; 
enduring,  however,  not  preferring,  as  some  would  have  it, 
drier  or  wetter  situations  and  shallow  soils. 

While  for  the  start  of  the  tree,  the  soil  in  the  plant  hole  can 
be  improved,  it  must  not  be  forgotten  that,  in  most  cases 
the  tree  must  eventuallv  grow  into  the  native  soil,  m  which 
it  must  be  adapted  to  help  itself.     Especially  is  this  true  m 
regard  to  the  depth.    There  exist,  however,  wrong  notions 
as  to  the  depth  of  soil  needed:  a  soil  of  four  to  six  feet  is 
deep  for  most  species,  and  if  fissured  rock  underhes  the  sur- 
face soil  at  from  two  to  three  feet,  the  conditions  are  lavor- 
able  enough  for  adapti^  e  species,  even  with  deep-going  roots 
the  roots  penetrating   into   the   fissures  which  form  good 
drainage  channels.     Only  when  impenetrable  layers  of  rock 
or  ground-water  lie  within  two  or  three  feet  from  the  surface 
wiU  species  with  tap-root  or  heart-root  fail  to  thrive,  eventually 
showing  the  effect  in  rapidly  tapering  and  spindling  form. 

In  streets,  the  natural  deficiencies  of  the  soil  are  further 
accentuated  by  such  disturbances  of  water-supply  as  the 
impediment  of  pavements,  and  the  underground  drain  pipes, 
etc.,  under  which  conditions  hardiness  and  adaptiyeness  as 
regards  root  development  are  naturaUy  most  essenual. 

We  should  1-  gain  lay  stress  upon  the  fact  that  there 
is  a  more  or  k  -se  interrpla^^^  between  soil  and  cUmate, 
and  that  the  one  can  in  part  compensate  for  the  other; 
that  is  to  sav,  a  poor  soil  (as  regards  water-supply)  wi  1 
accentuate  the  deficiencies  of  climate,  while  a  deep,  well- 
watered,  well-drained  soil  will  make  it  possible  for  species 
to  endure  climatic  ills  to  which  they  would  succumb  under 
less  satisfactory  soil  conditions.  Hence  hardiness  is,  at 
least  in  part,  dependent  on  soil. 

Similarly,  there  may  be  provided  some  natural  or  artihcial 


200 


Choice  of  Plant  Material 


il 

li  '. 


* 


protection  which  may  enable  a  specimen  of  a  half-hardy 
species  to  endure  adverse  climatic  conditions.  And,  finally, 
there  is  such  a  thing  as  individual  hardiness,  a  given  speci- 
men enduring  what  the  species  in  general  may  not  be  ex- 
pected to  survive. 

Again,  local  variation  of  climatic  conditions,  due  to  aspect 
and  protection  against  Avinds,  is  (juitc  remarkable.  Thus 
the  north  or  the  south  slope,  the  top  of  a  hill  or  a  depression, 
often  produces  sulTicient  difference  to  enable  a  species  to 
thrive  in  the  one  and  not  in  the  other  limited  locality, 
although  the  two  may  be  only  a  few  hundred  yards  apart. 

We  may  not,  therefore,  draw  valid  conclusions  from  single 
observations,  and  the  word  "hardy"  may  only  be  under- 
stood in  general  terms. 

For  determination  of  the  likelihood  of  hardiness,  we  have 
referred  to  a  publication  of  the  Canadian  Experirr  at 
Farms,  by  Dr.  Wm.  Saunders,  in  which  are  given  the  results 
of  long-continued  tests  of  a  very  extensive  list  of  trees  and 
shrubs  in  the  untoward  climate  of  Ottawa,  Manitoba,  and 
the  Northwestern  Territories.* 

Besides  the  two  paramount  considerations  of  climatic  and 
soil-adajjtation,  the  following  points  will  enter  into  the 
selection  of  plant  material. 

1.  Ornamental  value;  which  depends  upon  outline,  habit 
of  growth,  and  final  form  of  crown,  as  well  as  upon  character, 
shape,  arrangement,  and  color  of  foliage  and  bark,  the 
autumnal  tints  to  which  it  changes,  and,  although  in  a  minor 
degree  in  trees,  on  flowers,  fruit,  and  bark. 

2.  Shading  value;  which  depends  not  only  on  the  size, 
form,  and  density  of  the  foliage,  but  also  on  leaf  period,  i.e., 
the  earlier  or  later  leafing-out  and  the  earlier  or  later  fall 
of  foliage. 

>  Bulletin  No.  47,  1904. 


General  Considerations 


201 


3.  Rate,  persistence  (longevity),  and  mode  of  growth, 
the  branching  being  either  spreading  or  upright;  points 
which  are  of  importance,  especiaUy  in  the  grouping  of  trees 
and  in  the  selection  for  certain  special  situations,  such  as 
small  places,  narrow  streets,  etc. 

4.  Relative  water  and  light  requirements  are  essential 
considerations  in  grouping  trees;  the  latter  quality  especially 
in  connection  with  the  rate  of  height  growth,  fitting  or  unfit- 
ting them  for  grouping  and  underplanting. 

5.  Cleanliness  of  habit;  a  consideration  which  deserves 
attention  especiaUy  in  street-tree  planting,  where  continu- 
ous shedding  of  foliage,  flowers,  fruit,  or  other  parts  litter- 
ing the  ground  is  undesirable. 

6.  Liability  to  insect  pests;  which  is  closely  related  to  the 
requirements  of  cleanliness,  and  increases  the  need  of  care. 

7.  Liability  to  fungus  and  other  diseases. 

8.  Endurance  and  recuperative  powers;  which  enable 
the  trees  to  repair  damage  readily  and  to  respond  to  pruning 
and  other  restorative  treatment. 

9.  Special  requirements  or  habits  which  give  additional 
point  or  else  exclude  the  use  of  some  trees  in  given  situa- 
tions. Such  requirements  or  objects  to  be  attained  may 
consist  in  proper  grouping,  in  fitting  special  locations  of 
valley,  slope,  or  hill  as  to  foliage,  color,  or  outline,  in 
furnishing  shelter,  in  withstanding  special  hardships,  such 
as  winds,  untoward  soil  conditions,  deleterious  gases,  etc. 

In  the  choice  of  street  trees  in  particular,  endurance  and 
recuperative  power  are  most  essential;  cleanliness  of  habit 
coming  next.  Being  planted  for  shade,  the  degree  of  such 
shade  is  a  matter  of  consideration,  and  thus  the  length  of 
leaf  period  forms  an  important  part  in  this  consideration. 

Rapidity  of  growth  usually  means  short  life,  hence  where 
the  planting  is  to  be  of  permanent  character,  as  in  streets, 


202 


Choice  of  Plant  Material 


1  crsislence  rather  than  rapidity  of  growth  should  be  looked 
for,  keeping  in  mind  that  ultimate  size  must  also  be  consid- 
ered with  reference  to  the  width  of  the  street.  , 

With  these  points  in  mind  we  shall  briefly  examine  the 
more  common  of  our  native  species  which  lend  themselves 
to  ornamental  planting,  ami  such  of  the  exotic,  arbores- 
cent flora  as  have  become  thoroughly  and  generally  estab- 
lished in  our  country;  and  finally  give  a  few  lists  of  species 
adaj)ted  to  special  situations  and  purposes. 

There  are  in  existence  several  thousand  species,  varieties, 
and  forms  of  trees,  and  j)erhaps  not  less  than  two  thousand 
are  found  cultivated  in  {)arks  and  gardens,  and  of  North 
American  species  alone  nearly  two  hundred  and  fifty.  But, 
if  we  confine  ourselves  to  the  consideration  of  the  enumerated 
(nearly  four  hundred)  species,  we  shall  have  at  least  included 
the  best  for  general  use. 

As  we  have  said,  adaptation  to  climate  is  a  conditio  sine 
qua  non.  Hence,  we  limit  the  enumeration  of  species 
adapted  to  climatic  conditions  in  the  Eastern  States,  north  and 
south.  Xor  can  we  enter  into  an  extensive  discussion  of 
the  ornamental  value  of  our  many  species.  In  this  respect 
we  may  only  give  a  few  general  hints,  referring  the  reader 
to  such  discussions  of  this  phase  of  the  subject  as  are  found 
in  books  on  Lr.ndscape  Gardening. 

A  few  general  remarks  regarding  ornamental  values  and 
some  other  guiding  points,  which  may  accentuate  essentials 
in  this  rcsjx'Ct,  and  a  few  facts,  known  to  the  professional 
landscape  gardener,  but  not  ofter  discussed  in  books,  may 
well  precede  our  enumeration. 

Ornamental  value  is  in  the  first  place  a  matter  of  indi- 
vidual taste;  but  there  are  standards  of  taste  which  it  is  well 
to  consult  before  setting  u[)  one's  own  standard. 

Since  the  impression  of  beauty  is  largely  produced  by  the 


I 


General  Considerations 


203 


I 


lii 

til 


appearance  of  appropriateness,  the  ornamental  value  of  a 
tree  must  always  be  judge<J  with  reference  to  the  place  in 
which  it  stands  or  is  to  be  put.  Hence,  a  conifer  whose  beauty 
lies  in  the  pyramidal,  or  rather  conical  crown  with  branches 
down  to  the  base  is  not  beautiful  as  a  street  tree,  because  its 
inappropriatcness  of  form  in  such  position  is  at  once  appar- 
ent; the  copper  beech,  a  beautiful  object  in  itself,  loses  its 
ornamental  value  by  being  planted  promiscuously  and  in 
large  clumps;  like  all  unusual  things  U  is  beautiful  only  in 
singleness  when  properly  set  off.  Similarly  the  use  of  droop- 
ing trees,  dwarfs,  fastigiate  forms,  or  of  any  peculiar  colors 
or  shapes  in  masses  and  '^et  out  promiscuously;  or  of  antago- 
nistic shapes  in  combination,  destroys  the  ornamental  value 
which  any  one,  singly,  might  possess. 

Hence,  it  is  possible  only  to  point  out  thos  characteristics 
in  the  development  of  species  which  furnish  the  basis  for 
judging  ornamental  value;  the  individual  situation  or  location 
being  an  essential  point  in  such  judgment. 

Since  in  northern  latitudes  the  deciduous-leaved  trees  are 
without  foliage  at  least  for  half  the  year,  the  shape  of  the 
crown  and  the  kind  of  bark  should  receive  more  considera- 
tion than  is  usually  the  case.  Indeed,  the  skeleton  of  the 
branch  system  (made  up  of  branches  and  twigs  of  varying 
number,  length,  thickness,  position,  and  angle  of  insertion) 
imparts  to  the  crown  its  typical  aspect  both  in  winter  and 
summer,  for  the  position  and  density  of  the  foliage  is  depend- 
ent on  the  position  and  density  of  the  branchlets. 

We  recognize  in  the  first  place  the  monopodial  type,  i.e., 
the  one  in  which  one  main  axis  or  bole  persistently  dominates 
the  whole  system  into  late  life,  the  branches  remaining  rel- 
atively inferior,  as  is  usually  the  case  with  firs,  spruces,  pines, 
and  other  conifers, at  least  during  their  young  period, and  w-lh 
the  Tulip-tree  among  the  broad-leaf  kinds;  the  dichopodial 


..a 


ii 


204  Choice  of  Plant  Material 

type,  in  which,  as  with  the  elm,  a  constant  forking  into 
equaUy  strong  branches  takes  place;  and  the  polypodial  or 
multifarious  brandling  tyi)e,  to  which  the  majority  of  trees 
conform.  But  even  this  latter,  apparently  lawless  type,  has 
points  of  symmetry;  it  can  be  classified  and  the  law  of  its 
development  recognized.  The  number  and  distribution  of 
long  and  short  shoots,  of  stout  and  slender  twigs  and  branches, 
arranged  oi)posite  or  spirally,  the  straightness  or  crookedness 
of  the  single  limbs,  the  angle  of  insertion,  the  erect,  spread- 
ing or  more  or  less  pendent  habit,  are  variously  possessed  by 
the  different  genera  and  species,  and  account  for  the  variety 
of  tree  crowns;  while  the  relative  development  in  length  of 
the  bole  and  branches  give  rise  to  the  varying  outlines:  con- 
ical, globular,  elliptical,  umbrella  shape,  vase-shape,  and  the 
unsymmetrical  straggling  outline. 

But  while  we  can  recognize  types  to  which  the  species  on 
the  whole  conform,  there  is  individual  variety  which  removes 
single  trees  more  or  less  from  the  types,  and  this  fact  of 
tlie  variability  in  form  and  other  characteristics  must  not  be 
forgotten  in  selecting  plant  material. 

Not  only  is  there  great  inherited  individual  variety  in  trees 
of  the  same  species,  but  the  height  growth,  outline,  and  gen- 
eral form,  size  of  foliage,  and  even  color,  are  much  more  influ- 
enced by  the  soil  in  which  the  tree  grows  than  is  usually 

realized. 

The  great  variation  which  we  may  observe  in  this  respect 
in  trees  of  the  same  species  is  sometimes  so  astonishing  that 
we  might  be  inclined  to  class  them  as  different  species.^  See- 
ing, therefore,  a  particularly  pleasing  form  or  color  in  one 
situation,  we  must  not  expect  that  the  same  effect  may  be 
duplicated  in  another  quite  different  situation. 

The  same  difference,  although  less  striking,  is  observed 
in  the  leaf  period.    Not  only  general  and  local  climatic  con- 


General  Considerations 


205 


(litions,  but  also  local  soil  conditions  will  cause  one  tree 
to  bud  out  earlier  and  a>tain  its  foliage  longer  than  another 
tree  of  the  same  species.  That  the  length  of  leaf  period  is  a 
habit  capable  of  inheritance  is  i)roved  by  the  fact  that  sev- 
eral of  the  exotics  wliich  are  fref|uently  planted  have  invari- 
ablv  a  longer  leaf  period  than  native  species  of  the  same 
genus;  the  European  elms,  linden,  and  maples  are  examples. 

Another  very  important  point,  also  often  overlooked,  is 
that  the  form  of  crown  changes  from  the  young  to  the  old 
tree:  there  is  a  btiuty  of  youth  and  a  beauty  of  maturity, 
while  adolescence  is  often  marked,  as  in  man,  by  awkward 
and  unsatisfactory  looks.  This  is  especially  the  case  with 
conifers;  for  the  change  from  the  shapely  conical  young  form 
to  the  broad  stately  umbrella-shape  or  the  comjjactly  globular 
or  ascending  rhomboidal  form  of  old  age,  intcr{)oses  a  less 
pleasing,  longer  or  shorter,  intermediary  stage.  The  descrip- 
tion of  the  o'Hlinc  or  form  of  a  tree  can  therefore  refer  only 
to  one  pcricxl  ct  its  life,  usually  the  mature  stage. 

In  selecting  rare  species  which  nurserymen  are  apt  to  prop- 
agate by  grafting  on  other  stocks,  it  should  not  be  over- 
looked that  these  stocks  may  jjrcxluce  idesirab'e  results: 
a  ditTerent  ate  of  growth  may  cause  bulging  at  the  juncture, 
the  lower  trunk  being  cither  more  rapid  or  less  rapid  than 
the  graft  in  ,^aining  diameter,  or  the  foliage  may  revert  to 
that  of  the  mothc  ^tock,  etc.  Hence,  in  jjurchasing  such 
grafted  trees  we  must  assure  ourselves  that  experience  has 
proved  the  stock  upon  which  the  graft  is  made  as  trust- 
worthy. 

The  same  disappointment  which  we  may  experience  in 
the  form  development,  by  virtue  of  unsuitable  soil  conditions 
may,  of  course,  extend  to  the  shading  value  and  to  the  rate 
of  growth.  The  tree  which  in  a  rich  soil  developed  a  mag- 
niticent  canopy  of  foliage  will  be  scantily  furnished  in  a 


il 


206 


Choice  of  Plant  Material 


dry  soil,  ami  its  rate  of  growth  will  he  in  proportion  to  its 
leeding.  I^cn  the  tolerance  of  shade  is  relative  to  the  suj)- 
ply  of  water.  And  as  vigorous  constitution  fights  off  dis- 
ease, so,  insect  pests  and  fungus  diseases  attack  the  least 
vigorous,  and  hence  in  the  last  analysis  are  to  some  extent 
in  relation  to  soil  rondlaons. 

From  what  has  been  said,  it  stands  to  reason  that  all 
descrijnions  of  form  and  statement  of  characteristics,  unless 
more  extended  than  can  be  given  in  this  book,  refer  only  lo 
some  stage  of  development  and  to  typical  trees  and  condi- 
tions, from  which  nature  may  deviate  a  hundred  times. 

LIST   OF  TREES   DESIRABLE    FOR   SHADE   AND 

^  )RXAMEXT 

While  in  office  at  Washington,  the  writer  spent  much  of 
his  hisurc  in  becoming  accpiainled  with  the  wealth  of  orna- 
mental material  planted  in  the  small  parks  of  the  city  (some 
four  hundred  species).  He  cause('  to  be  comjnled  plats  of 
all  the  parks  and  sm.all  places,  locating  each  tree  by  number, 
so  that  at  a  glance,  by  reference  to  a  numbered  list,  it  could 
be  named.  There  was  also  compiled,  under  his  direction  and 
personal  supervision,  a  dcscri|)tion  of  the  sjjccies  with  such 
notes  of  interest  as  the  trce-lovcr  and  trec-i)lantcr  would 
ai)preciate.  The  manuscrij)!,  nearly  completed  ten  years 
ago,  when  the  writer  left  office,  has  unfortunately  remained 
locked  up  in  the  drawers  of  the  Department  with  which 
he  had  been  conn-clcd,  and  failed  so  far  of  i)ublication. 
The  writer  mentions  this  incident  merely  to  justify  his  pre- 
suming to  give  advice  on  the  choice  of  ornamental  trees. 

The  following  list  of  nearly  four  hundred  s|>ecies  and  vari- 
eties does  not  in  any  sense  pretend  to  be  a  complete  enumera- 
tion of  the  trees  which  deserve  attention,  but  it  contains  all 


Trees  for  Shade  and  Ornament  207 


the  best  known  and  tested,  and  a  few  less  known  but  com- 
mendable ones. 

To  become  accjuainttxl  with  such  a  large  amount  of 
material  some  kind  of  classification  is  desirable.  Since,  from 
the  ornamental  point  of  view,  the  character  of  the  foliage  is 
a  more  important  consideration  than  the  fruit  (although  the 
latter  is  used  in  botanical  classification),  it  has  seemed  desir- 
able to  make  it  the  basis  for  sequence  in  our  enumeration. 

The  irces  with  nccdif-shr.j)ed  ka-es  coincide  with  the 
botanical  family  of  conifers,  and  we  iiave  giouped  them 
under  common  generic  or  family  names  in  alphabetical 
sequence. 

The  broad-leaf  trees  could  be  grouped,  from  the  orna- 
mental point  of  view,  under  trees  with  simple  leaves,  and 
those  with  compound  leaves,  and  each  of  these  two  groups 
might  be  again,  with  less  precision,  grouped  into  large-leaved 
and  small-leaved  trees.  Size,  to  be  sure,  can  only  be  a 
relative  measure,  in  a  general  way  accentuating  the  reiati\e 
leaf-value  of  the  dilTerent  groups,  and  the  ini|)ression  of 
coarser  or  finer  elTects  of  foliage.  Since,  however,  many 
genera  contain  species  with  large  and  small  leaves,  which 
would  require  that  they  be  separated  and  much  of  the  infor- 
mation duplicated,  we  have  preferred  to  restrict  the  classi- 
fication into  those  with  compound  and  those  with  simple 
leaves  and  give  under  each  a  list  in  all  habctical  order  of 
the  genera  by  Latin  names  with  cross  references  from  the 
common  names;  discussing  under  the  genus  points  of  sim- 
ilarity in  ornamental  value,  the  characteristics  and  require- 
ments which  are  in  common;  and  giving  under  the  species 
only  the  distinctive  features. 

The  buyer  of  plant  material  from  nurseries  will  finrl  great 
variation  in  the  names  given  to  various  trees  in  different 
catalogues;  indeed,  even  the  botanists  have  not  yet  come  to 


11 


it 


208 


Choice  of  Plant  Material 


a  stable  nomenclature.  We  have  tried  to  give  the  latest 
accepted  Latin  name,  and,  if  there  are  several  the  one 
which  has  been  most  generally  emj)loved  hitherto  is  placed 
in  parenthesis. 

The  common  names  are  also  often  confused,  and  one  has 
to  be  careful  in  ordering  stock  to  make  sure  w/iat  plant  is 
meant,  and  that  name  and  plant  are  identical.  This  is  very 
important,  since  nurserymen's  use  of  names  varies  greatly. 
The  only  sure  means  of  settling  the  identity  of  the  plant  and 
name  is  to  quote  the  Latin  name  with  its  authority,  as  is 
done  in  the  list  except  for  synonyms  and  varieties.  For 
our  native  species  we  have  relied  chiefly  on  the  nomenclature 
of  Sargent's  ^lanual,  and  Bulletin  17  of  the  Division  of  For- 
estry. 

Beyond  mere  mention,  we  have  not  gone  into  the  nursery- 
men's varieties,  which  consist  usually  of  a  change  in  stature 
(dwarfs),  of  form  (i)endulous,  fastigiate),  of  leaf  form  (cut- 
leaved,  crinkled),  or  leaf  color  (golden,  red,  spotted),  or 
color  of  flower.  These  can  be  selected  from  the  catalogues, 
when  such  special  forms  are  needed,  the  beha\ior  of  these 
forms  being  otherwise  mostly  like  their  i)arents,  exce[)t 
that  they  are  apt  to  be  more  tender,  and  that  they  will 
more  or  less  readily  revert  to  their  type,  if  conditions  are 
not  favorable  to  preservation  of  the  form. 

In  the  notes,  we  have  followed  as  nearly  as  ])ossible  the 
same  sequence  of  points,  and  have  tried  to  su])]jly,  in  the 
briefest  style,  information  such  as  the  planter  would  ask. 
Descriptions  of  ornamental  features  are  at  best  poor,  and, 
to  select  material,  one  should  have  seen  a  specimen  tree  at 
the  nursery  or  elsewhere  (making  sure  of  pro])er  identifica- 
tion) in  order  to  judge  of  its  \alue  for  the  purpose  in  hand. 

Since  nurserymen  and  others  still  confound  trees  and 
shrubs,  classing  among  the  latter  small  trees  below  an  arbi- 


Trees  for  Shade  and  Ornament  209 


trary  size,  we  may  repeat  that  the  definition  of  a  tree  which 
the  writer  made  many  years  ago,  and  which  Professor  Sargent 
adopted  for  his  Silva  has  been  foUowed.  This  recognizes 
as  trees  ail  woody  plants  which  grow  in  nature  as  a  rule  with 
a  single  stem,  bearing  a  definite  crown.  Where,  however, 
a  genus  furnishes  shrub  forms  as  well  as  trees,  these  have 
also  been  briefly  referred  to  in  the  tree  list. 

The  height  of  trees  varies  greatly  according  to  conditions 
of  growth,  hence  only  an  approximation  to  the  usual 
maximum  dimensions  can  be  given.  We  designate  as  tall 
trees,  those  over  75  feet  in  height;  medium  size,  from  25  to 
75  feet;  low,  from  10  to  25;  dwarfs,  below  10  feet. 

For  ready  reference  we  give  an  alphabetical  list  of 
the  genera  and  species  enumerated,  the  numbers  in  paren- 
thesis preceding  the  species-name  coinciding  with  those  of 
the  species  discussed  in  the  following  pages.  Varieties  are 
placed  in  parenthesis. 
A.   CONIFERS.    TREES   WITH    NEEDLE-SH.\PED   LEAVES 


Abies  (23)  amabilis,  (24)  grandis, 
(25)  magnifica,  (26)  nobilis, 
(27)  balsamea,  (28^  Fraseri,  (29) 
peclinata,  (30)  concolor,  (31) 
Nordmanniana,  (32)  Cepha- 
lonica,  (32a  Appollinis),  (33) 
Pinsapo,  (34)  Cilicica,  (35) 
Veitchii,  (36)  homolepis. 

Cedrus  (i)  Atlantica,{ia,  glauca), 
{lb,  fasligiata),  (2)  Libani,  (3) 
Deodara. 

Cephalotaxus  (83)  Fortunei. 

Chamaecyparts  (Retinispora) 
(6)  spharoidea  (thuyoides),  (7) 
Lawsoniana,  (8)  Nootkansis, 
(9)  obtusa,  (10)  pisifera,  (loa, 
plumosa),  {10b,  squarrosa),  (loc, 


nana),    {xod,    pygmaa),    (io«, 
aurea). 
Cryptomeria  (17)  Japonica. 

CUNNINGHAMIA   (22)   Silietisis. 

CupRESSUS  (4)  scmpervirens, 
(4a  fasligiata),  (5)  macro- 
carpa. 

GiNGKO  (37)  biloba. 

JuxiPER^s  (16)  Vu^niana. 

Larix  i^decidua,  (44)  laricina 
{Americana),  (45)  occidentalis, 
(46)  Lyallii,  (47)  leptolepis. 

IjBOCEDRrs  (18)  dccurrcns. 

Pice  A  (71)  excelsa,  (72)  rubens 
(73)  alba,  (74)  pungens, 
( ■j^)orientalis,  (7511  Kosteriana), 
(756  I'arryana),  (76)  polita. 


a 


210 


Choice  of  Plant  Material 


PiNus  (49)  Sirobus,  (50)  Lam- 
bertiana,  (51)  montirola,  (52) 
Koraiensis,  (53)  Pence,  (54) 
excelsa,  (55)  Ayacahuite,  (56) 
Cembra,  (57)  sihrstris  (57a, 
rigensis),  (58)  /ar/fw  (Austriaca), 
(59)  6M<//a,  {60)  rvsmosa,  (61) 
divaricata,  (62)  rigida,  (63) 
pungens,  (64)  palustris,  (65) 
echinata,  (66)  glabra,  (67)  />()«- 
<icro5a,  (68)  Pinaster,  (69) 
mughus,  (70)  pumilio. 

PoDocARPUS  (84)  alpina. 

PsEUDOLARix  (48)  Kicmpferi. 

PsEUDOisuGA  (42)  taxifolia 
(Douglasii),  (42  fris)  macro- 
carpa. 


Retinispora     see     Chamaecy- 

PARIS. 

Salisburea  see  Gingko. 
Sequoia  (20)  sempen-irens,   (21) 

gigantea. 
Taxodium  (19)  distichum. 
Taxus  (77)  baccata,  (78)  CM5^t- 

</a/a,  (79)  Canadensis. 
Thuja     (11)     occidentalis,     (12) 

i?i>a«/.  /,    (13)    Japonica,    (14) 

orientalis. 
Thuyopsis  (15)  dolobrala. 
ToRREYA    (80)    Californica,   (81) 

taxifolia,  (82)  nucifera. 
TsUGA     (38)     Canadensis,     (39) 

Caroliniana,  (40)  Mertensiana, 

(41)  Hookeriana  (Pattoniana). 


B.    BROAD-LEAF  TREES   WITH  COMPOUND  LEAVES 


AcAOA  (91)  deairrens,   (92)   ^«- 

bescens,  (93)  Julibrissin. 
^scuLUS    (94)    Hippocastanum, 

(95)  Paz'ia  {rubra),  (g6)glabra, 

(97)  octandra  (Java),  (98)  /xir- 

viflora  {macros tac It ya). 
AiLANTHUS  (99)  glandulosa. 
Aralia  (100)  spinosa,  (loi)  7a- 

ponica  {Sieboldii). 
Caragana      (102)      arborescens, 

(103)  spinosa,  (103  Wi)  /rules- 

cens. 
Cladrastis  (104)  tine  tor  ia  {Vir- 

gilia  lulea). 
Cytisus  sc'-  Lahurnum. 
Fraxinus  (105)  i4»/fr«:a«a,  (106) 

wijfra  {sambucijolia),  (107)  /aw- 

ceolata    {viridis),    (io8)    ^wat/- 


rangulata,  (109)  excelsior,  (no) 

OrKM5. 

C'lLEDiTSCHiA  (89)  triacanthos, 
(90)  inerinis. 

Gymnocladus  (in)  Canaden- 
sis. 

HicoRiA  (112)  minima  {amara), 
(113)  Pfca«  {olivceformis),  ( 1 14) 
OT'a/a  a/6a,  (115)  laciniosa  {sul- 
cata), (116)  a/6a  {tomentosa), 
(107)  myristiccrformis. 

JUGi.ANS  (118)  MJ^ra,  (119)  «■- 
nerea,  (120)  ruprestris,  (121) 
rf^ta,  (121  i/5)  Sieboldiana. 

Koelreuteria(i22)  paniculata. 

Laburnum  (123)  vulgare  {Cy- 
tisus). 

Melia  (124)  Azedarach. 


Trees  for  Shade  and  Ornament  211 


Rhus  (125)  liiria  (lypliina),  (126) 
copallina,  (127)  Coliiins,  {12S) 
glabra,  (i28<;,  laciniala),  (i2g) 
semialata  Osbrkii. 

RoBiN'iA  (85)  pseudacacia,  (86) 
iiiemis,  (87)  viscosa,  (88)  liis- 
pida. 


SoPHORA  (130)  Japoiiiai,  (130J, 
pnidula),  (131)  phitycarpa,  (132) 
si'ciindijlora. 

SoRnrs  (133)  Americana,  (134) 
aucuparia,    (135)    -t/'/.i,    (136) 

ViRGiLiA.see  Cladrastis. 


C.    BROAD-LKAF  TRKES  WITH   SIMPLE   LI  AVF.S 


Acer  '137)  saccharum  (s  ■ 
nurr),  (138)  nigrum,  (13. 
riduniim,  (140)  rubrum,  (  -  ., 
sacharinum  (das  y  carp  u  ;••), 
(141a,  H'aW),  (142)  Pcnnsyl- 
vaniciim,  (143)  spicalum,  (144) 
Negundo,  (145)  macro phyllum, 
(146)  platanoides,  (147)  pseudo- 
platanus,  (148)  campestre,  (149) 
monsspessulanum,iiso)Ginnala 
(Tartaricum),  {150a,  laciniala), 
(i$i)  Schwedlcri,  (152)  /e«te«- 
6ac//i,  (153)  IFoW«,  (154) 
crispiim,  (155)  Japonicum, 
(156)  polymorphum  (palma- 
tum),  (i56(i,  atropurpureum 
disseclum),  (1566,  sanguineum), 
(156c,    rosea pictitm). 

Alnus  (157)  giiitinosa,  (157a, 
imperialis),  (158)  cordifolia 
(cordata),  (159)  rMX"^a  (serrx- 
/a/a),  (160)  incana,  (161)  X'/W- 
«fw,  (162)  maritima. 

Amelavchif.r  (163)  Canadensis, 
(164)  alnifolia,  (165)  /li/u/i- 
ca  (Japonica). 

Andromeda  see  Oxydendron. 

Betula  (166)  a/6fl,  (i66a,  a/ro- 
purpurea),     (167)     pjpuU/olia, 


(168)    papyri/era,    (169)    /H/ea, 
(170)  /t'«/(i. 
Buxus  (171)  sempervirens,  (ijia, 
sujfrulicosa),      (171/',      aurca), 
171C,  argenka),  (iT\d,  angusti- 
folia),  (172)  Balearica. 
Carpin-us      (175)      Caroliniana, 
(176)  Belulus,  (177)  Japonica. 
Castanea  (178)  Americana  {den- 
/a/a),  (179)  sa/rVa,  (180)  pumila. 
Castanopsis  (181)  chrysophylla. 
Catalpa  (182)  cordifolia   (speci- 
osa),  (182)  bignonioides,  (183) 
n'a/a  (Kcempferi),   (184)  5h«- 
ga. 
Celtis    (185)    occidentalis,   (186) 

Bungeana  (Sinensis). 
Cercidipiiyllum    (187,    Japon- 
icum. 
Cercis   (188)   Canadens-s    (189) 
siliquaslrum,     (190)     .iinensis 
(Japonica). 
CiiioN-ANTiii'S  (191)  Virginica. 
CoRNUS     (192)    /m(/a,     (192a, 
r«ftni),  (193)  allernifolia,  (194) 
amomum  (sericea),  (ig^)  sangu- 
inea,    (196)    slolonifera,    (197) 
circinala,  (198)  .l/a^,  (199)  a/ia 
{latarica,   sibirica),    (199a,   -Vj 


212 


Choice  of  Plant  Material 


berica  variegata),  (199*.  Spathi), 
(200)  Honda. 
Crat.egus  (201)  Crus-galli,  (202) 
coccinea,  (202a,  macnicantha), 
(203)  mollis,  (204)  pyracantha, 
(Pyracantha  coccinea),  (205) 
Oxyacantha,  (206)  sanguinea, 
(207)  monogyna,  (207a,  Pa«//). 
DiosPYRUS      (208)      Virginiana, 

(209)  A'a^i. 
Fagus  (210)  ferruginea  (Ameri- 
cana),   (211)    silvatica,    (211a, 
purpurea),  {211b,  helerophylla), 
(2 1  If,  quercoides). 
Ilex  (212)  o/>acd,    (213)  o^wJ/b- 
/j«m,     (214)     latifolia,      (215) 
crenata,  (216)  vomitoria,  (217) 
verticillata,      (218)     monticola, 
(219)   Icevigata,    (220)     g/aftra, 
(221)  decidua,  (222)  Cassine. 
LiQUiDAMBAR  (223)  slyraciflua. 
LiRioDENDRON  (224)  luHpifera. 
Magnolia  (225)  /.r/j^/a  (gram/i- 
/ora),  (226)  macropliylla,  (227) 
tripeiala,    (228)    g/awca,    (229) 
acuminata,   (230)    I'u/aM   (co«- 
spicua),    (231)    oftoi'd/J    (/>«r- 
/>«r<ra),   (231a,  gracilis),   (232) 
pari'iflora,     (232a,      ira/50«t), 
(233)  i/e/Za/a  (Halleana),  (234) 
A'o6m5,   (23s)  hypoleuca,   (236) 
Soulangeana,     (236)     speciosa, 
(237)  Alexandrina. 
MoRUS  (238)  rHftra,  (239)  mgra, 

(240)  a/6a. 
Nyssa  (241)  sylvalica,  (242)  M«i- 

Olea  see  Osmanthus. 
Osmanthus    (243)    Americanus, 


(244)  aquifolium,   (244a,  t/tci- 
folium),   (24s)  fragrans,  (Olea 
fragrans). 
OsTRYA  (24s  Ws)  virginica,  (246) 

T/u/gam. 
OxYDENDRON  (247)  arboTca  (An- 
dromeda). 
Paulownia  (248)  imperialis. 
PiRUS   (249)  A/a/M5,   (250)  COfO- 
Mam,    (251)   spectabilis,   (252) 
/oen.sw   Bccfete/,  (253)  ioccato, 
(254)    prunifolia,    (225)  /m- 
6M«</a,  (25Srt,  Parkmanii),  (256) 
Toringo,  (257)  Sinensis  (Japon- 
ica),    (2570,   Moorlosi),    (2576, 
macrocarpa),  (257^,  roseo  /ore 
/i/cno),      (257*/,      grandiflora), 
(2S7«,  nivalis),  (257/,  simplex), 
(2Sjg,    foliis    rubris),     (257/1, 
Niedzivetzkyana),  (258)  Maulei. 
Platanus  (25g)  occidentalis,  (260) 
orientalis,  (261)  Wrightii,  (262) 
cuneata,  (263)  acerifolia. 
PoPULUS  (264)  deltoidea  (monoli- 
fera.    Canadensis),    (265)    6a/- 
samifera,  (266)  dilatata,   (267) 
a/6a,    (268)   tremuloides,    (269) 
grandidentata,   (270)  laurifolia, 
(270a,  certinensis),  (2706,  Bereo- 
/ew^s),   (270c,  Petrovski),  (270 
Ws)  Razumofskiana. 
Prunus  (CfwsMs)  (271)  Pseudo- 
Cerasus  horlensis,  (272)  Japon- 
ica  (Sinensis),  (273)  Pissardii 
cericifera    alropurpurea,    (274) 
Amygdalus,  (275)  Persica,  (276) 
Armeniaca,  (277)  Mwrnf,  (278) 
spinosa,  (279)  angustifolia  (Chi- 
casa),    (280)    maritima,    (281) 


Conifers 


213 


serotina,  ^282)  Padus,  (283) 
Pcnnsyi'lanica,  (284)  Mahaleb. 
QVKRCUS  (285)  alba,  (286)  macro- 
car  pa,  (287)  lyrala,  (288)  stel- 
lata  (ohlusiloba,  minor),  (289) 
Priiius  [montana),  (290) 
Michauxi,  (291)  Muhlenbergi, 
(292)  vduiina  (tiuctoria),  (293) 
r«/;r(i,  (294)  coccinea,  (295) 
palustris,  (296)  ci/Hfu/a  ((/f/f/- 
to/a,  falcala),  (20-)  /"//fZ/oJ, 
(298)  imbrica.'ia,  (299)  wi^ra, 
(300)  Virginiava  ivirens),  (301) 
chrysolepis,  (302)  ilkifolia  Ban- 
isteri,  nana),  (303)  prinoiJcs 
{humilis),  (304)  /eoftwr  (/)6v/m«- 
cM/(j/a,  sessiliflora),  (i04a,Jilici- 
Jolia),  (3046,  purpurascens, 
atro purpurea),  (304c,  pendula), 
(2,o^d,  fasligiala),  (305)  CVrm, 
(306)  conjerta  (Pannonica). 

Rhamnl-s  (307)  Purshlana,  (308) 
Caroliniana,  (309)  alnifolia, 
(310)  cathartica,  (311)  Fraw- 
gM/a,  (311a,  uspknifolia). 

Salix    (312)    Babylonica,    (313) 


a//.<i,  (313a,  regalis),  (314)  t">'- 
/i«(j  awrea,  (^i^)  fragilis,  (316) 
Candida,  (317)  purpurea,  (318) 
decipiens,    (319)    «/jfra,    (320) 
/ij>/t/,    (321)     roroHo/i,    (322) 
C(i/»rfu  pendula,  (322  6J5)  A'/oie, 
(323)    discolor,     (324)    /«f/(/(i, 
(325)  iwctiHa,  (326)  rosmarini- 
Jolia,   (327)  argyrocarpa,  (328) 
pentandra  (laurifolia). 
Sassafras  (329)  officinale  (Sassa- 
fras). 
Tamarix   (330)  parviftora  (Afri- 
cana),  (331)  Germauica,  (332) 
O'd/Zica,  (333)  /«(i»ca. 
TiLiA    (334)    Americana     (335) 
Kuropcea,  (336)  pubescem,  {337) 
heterophylla,     (338)     argentea, 
(338  6:5)  dasyslyla  ieuchlora). 
ToxYLON  (339)  pomijerum  (Mac- 

lura  aurantiaca). 
Ulmvs  (340)  Americana,  (341) 
campcstris,  (341a,  suberosa), 
(342)  /m/z'U,  (343)  i/a'".  (344) 
racemosa,  (345)  scafcra,  (345^, 
pendula),  (346)  parvijolia. 


A.    CONIFERS 

The  ornamental  valie  of  the  conifers  consists  in  their 
evergreen  habit  —  for  all  except  the  Larch,  Golden  Larch, 
Bald  Cvpress,  and  Gingko  retain  their  leaves  throughout  the 
winter.  They  are  highly  ornamental  in  their  interesting, 
usually  somber  foliage  of  gray  to  dark  green  shades;  in 
their  symmetrical,  conical  form  during  the  early  period  of 
their  ii'fe,  with  a  branch  system  persisting  at  the  base  for  a 
long  time;  in  the  dignity  of  the  straight,  cylindric-!  trunk 


214 


Trees  for  Shade  and  Ornament 


hi 


and  high  towering,  variously-shaped  crown  in  later  life;  and 
in  the  picturesque  and  rugged  beauty  of  the  old  and  time- 
worn  trees.  Although  they  lack  the  interesting  seasonal 
changes  of  the  deciduous  trees,  the  persistence  of  their  foliage 
makes  them  especially  effective  for  enlivening  winter  scenery, 
and  for  shelter.  Si)ecial  care  is,  Iiowever,  necessary  in  the 
proper  use  and  location  of  this  family. 

On  account  of  their  shape,  mode  of  growth,  and  relative 
inability  to  repair  damage,  they  are  not  fit  for  street  trees; 
but  broad  avenues  with  wide  parking  may  be  made  attrac- 
tive by  widely  spaced  spruces  or  firs  (not  in  rows!).  Their 
best  use  is  in  single  specimens,  or  in  small  groups,  to  accen- 
tuate an  elevation,  or  a  boundary;  or  in  masses  for  distant 
backgrounds,  where  they  enliven  the  sky-line;  ur,  in  mixture 
with  deciduous  trees,  in  the  woodland  portion  of  the  parks, 
when  small  groups  fading  out  into  a  few  scattered  ones 
should  be  used;  also  in  single  specimens  on  a  lawn,  but  not 
too  frequently;  finally,  for  the  botanical  interest  in  a  "pine- 
tum."  As  a  rule,  they  fit  better  into  country  places  than 
into  city  parks,  especially  small  ones,  where  they  should  be 
used  sparingly  and  with  great  circumspection,  since  they  are 
apt  to  suffer  and  become  unsightly,  especially  during  the 
transition  period  from  youth  to  old  age.  Most  of  them 
being  somber,  they  should  not  be  placed  near  houses,  but 
rather  at  a  distance  against  a  livelier  background,  using 
those  with  the  most  vivid  shades  of  green  grouped  with  the 
deciduous  dark  shades  behind,  or  the  dark  shades  massed, 
with  bright-berried  and  bright-foliaged  trees  and  shrubs 
in  front. 

Generally  speaking,  conifers  prefer  light  sandy  well- 
drained  soils  and,  with  a  few  exceptions,  they  are  unsuit- 
able for  limestone  soil.  Their  form  especially  depends  on 
depth  of  soil.     Pines  belong  preferably  in  well-drained  sandy 


Cedars  and  Cypresses 


215 


soils,  and  arc  very  light  needing;  si)ruces,  being  shallow- 
rooted,  and  able  to  endure  only  medium  shade,  refjuire  moist, 
not  too  light  soils,  and  cool  situations;  I'lrs,  being  most  toler- 
ant of  shade,  must  have  deep  and  well-watered  soil,  and  can 
endure  a  compact  one.  The  last  two  mentioned  groups, 
being  mostly  of  alpine  or  mountainous  range,  must  as  a 
rule  have  specially  satisfactory  soil  conditions  (depth  and 
moisture),  in  order  to  stand  our  drouthy  atmosphere.  But 
few  are  adajjted  to  sea-coast  condition,  or  can  endure  city 

smoke. 

Many  si)ecies  are  remarkably  immune  from  diseases  if 
placed  in  proper  soils;  poorly  drained  soils,  however,  being 
apt  to  give  rise  to  physiological  and  fungus  diseases.  Only 
in  forests,  where  large  numbers  of  the  same  species  invite 
multiplication  of  insects,  is  there  much  trouble  to  be  antic- 
ipated from  these  pests.  In  their  youth  some  of  the  species 
are  liable  to  be  damaged  by,  or  to  succumb  to.  frosts  and 
drouth  and  since  they  rely  on  two  to  ten  yeais'  foliage,  which 
must  be  replaced,  if  lost,  the  recuperation  of  injured  parts 
is  often  difficult  and  slow. 

CEDARS   AND   CYPRESSES 

Under  these  names,  which  have  been  promiscuously  applied  to  mem- 
bers of  this  group,  we  can  combine  several  genera  of  trees  which  are 
lx)tanically  allied  and  have  also  much  in  common  as  regards  aspect, 
form,  and  be>avior.  They  are  characterized  by  an  upright  habit  of 
branches,  a  shingle-like  arrangement  of  small,  scale-like  leaves  (except- 
ing Cedriis,  Taxodium,  and  Sequoia),  and  often  by  a  close  stringy  bark. 
Having  mostly  a  full  supply  of  foliage,  at  least  when  young,  they  are 
effective  in  large  plantings  as  accent  trees,  also  in  fr-mal  plantings  as 
individual  specimens. 

They  are  represented  in  nine  genera,  namely,  Cedrus,  Cupressus, 
Chamacyparis  (including  Retinispora),  Libocedrus,  Juniperus,  Thuja 
(\nch\(\'-r:s,  Biota),  Thuyopsis,  Sequoia,  Taxodium.  Most  of  them, 
especially  Chamacyparis,  Juniperus  and   Thu]a,   have   characteristic 


W:, 


2l6 


Trees  for  Shade  and  Ornament 


juvenile  forms  of  foliage,  which  give  rise  to  many  dilTerent  varieties  of 
form. 

They  arc  especially  free  from  insect  pests,  and  arc  usually  adaptive 
as  regards  soil,  light-needing  or  only  moderately  tolerant  of  shade,  and 
easily  handled. 

Cedrus.  The  true  Cedars  are  large  trees,  from  Africa,  Asia  Minor, 
and  India,  and  hence  fit  mainly  for  southern  climates;  very  distinct  and 


Fig.  6o.  —  Cedar  of  Lebanon.     Cedrus  Libani  Barr. 

picturesque  in  form,  with  a  stately,  wide-spreading  habit,  and  rigid 
foliage  in  fascicles,  with  j)onderous,  erect  cones.  They  need  well- 
drained  soil,  and  are  subject  to  no  special  troubles.  To  be  used  mainly 
for  sjiecimen  trees.      Mainly  for  southern  planting. 

C.  Atlanlica  Manetti.  (i).  Silver  Cedar,  tlic  hardiest,  may,  if  shel- 
tered, be  grown  as  far  north  as  New  York.     It  is  of  pyramidal  form. 

There  is  a  variety, glauca  (\a)  (blue),  the  most  desirable  form,  >vith 

a  fine  silvery-hued  foliage;  and  a  columnar  variety fastigiata  (ib). 

C.  Libani  ".-r.  (2),  the  irxic  Cedar  of  Lebanon,  is  of  broad  spread- 
ing habit  (flattening  its  crown  with  age)  and  bright,  bluish-green  foli- 
age. 


Cedars  and  Cypresses 


217 


C  Deodara  Loud.  (3),  Deodar  Cedar,  an  admirable  tree  from  India, 
of  pyramidal  form,  with  somewhat  pendulous  branch  tips,  with  dark 
bluish-Kreen,  very  long  (2  inches)  rigid  needles,  of  rapid  growth,  is  a 
litht,  airy,  graceful,  lawn  tree. 

Cupressus.  The  true  Cypress.  This  genus  of  medium  to  small 
tre>s  usually  less  symmetrical  than  the  firs  and  spruces,  and,  with  their 
sleider  branchlets,  more  graceful,  contoins  some  ten  species  of  serm- 


FiG.  61.  —  Deodar  Cedar.     Cedrus  Deodara  Loud. 


tropi,:al  distribution,  hence  they  are  only  fit   for  southern  climates, 
and  deep,  sandy  loam. 

C.  sempervi-ens  Linn.  (4),  the  best  known,  European;  and  espe- 
cially the  columnar  variety,  fastigiata  (4a),  is  used  much  in  cemeteries, 
being  wmber  wi  h  its  dark  green  foliage  and  erect  form. 

C.  macrocarpt  Hartw.  (5),  (large-fruited),  the  well-known  Mon- 
terey Cypress,  much  planted  in  Califorria,  resembles  the  common  Ju- 
niper, but  has  more  feathery  foliage.  It  is  specially  fit  for  seacoast 
planting. 


21 8  Trees  for  Shade  and  Ornament 


Chamscyparis.  (Uy  s<imc  classed  with  Cul>rcssus,  and  some  forms 
calli'd  Rrlinispora.)  Cedar.  A  genus  of  medium  size  to  tall,  hiRhly 
omam'  -ilal  trees,  with  five  species  (hut  nearly  one  hundred  nursery 
Men's  forms)  which  are  characterized  by  the  broad,  flattened  sprays  of 
foliage,  and  pyramidal  habit,  with  erect  branches.  The  foliage  is  very 
variable,  and  changes  with  age;  the  young  form,  which  largely  gives 
rise  to  the  many  nursery  f'  i  (Rctinispora,  formerly  called  Ketino- 
spora)  is  linear  am.  sometiaies  .  .rp-pointed.  These  latter  are  especially 
fine  in  masses.  With  the  exception  of  (6),  which  is  native  as  far  north 
as  Maine,  the  other  two  si)ccies  from  the  Pacific  Coast  and  the  Japanese 
forms,  arc  only  semi-hardy  north  of  Xew  York.  Moist,  andy  soil  is 
generally  preferable;  they  arc  somewhat  shade-enduring. 

C.  spharoidea  Spach.  Uliuyoides)  (6),  White  Cedar,  is  especially 
well  de\eloped  in  Xew  Jersey  and  southward  along  the  coast;  a  medium- 
sizcfl,  g.dceful  tree,  of  spreading  habit,  with  light  green  foliage,  re- 
sembling the  Arbor\'it.'C. 

C.  Lau'soniana  Pari.  (7),  Lawsnn's  Cypress,  from  the  northern  Pa- 
cific Coast,  is  the  best  known  ornamental  species,  excelling  in  its 
graceful  foliage  and  pendulous  branch  tips  —  an  Arbor\it:E  foliage  with 
Hemlock  habit.  It  is  extremely  variable,  giving  rise  to  over  sixty  forms, 
with  varieties  in  color  and  habit.  It  is  best  used  as  single  specimen 
on  the  lawn  and  especially  near  water. 

C.  Nootkansis  Spach.  (8),  the  Alaska  Yellow  Cedar,  is  hardly  yet 
introduced  for  ornamental  planting,  but  claims  attention. 

C.  obttisa  S.  a"  Z.  (q),  and  pisifcra  S.  is'  Z.  (10),  the  two  Japanese 
species,  the  former  quite  hardy,  the  latter  less  so,  are  better  known  in 
their  varieties  under  the  name  of  Rrlinispora  — -  and  dwarf  forms, 
among  which  especially  the  feathery plumosa  (loa)  and  the  sil- 
very blue sqmrrosa  (loft),  excel    in    elegance; nana   (dwarf) 

(loc),  and pygmaa  (pygmy)  (loJ)  in  low  stature,   with  several 

brilliant  aurea  (loc)  (golden)  varieties.     They  are  fit  for  small 

places. 

C.  obtusa  generally  furnishes  the  potted  Japanese  dwarf  trees. 

Thuja  or  Thuya  (including  Biota),  Arbonntff,  also  called  While 
Cedar,  are  tall  to  medium  size,  rapid  growing  trees  of  regular,  formal, 
conical  habit  with  short,  much  ramified  branches.  Their  formality  is 
such  that  they  may  not  \vi  {.'lantcd  in  masses  except  as  screens  or  wind- 
breaks, or  for  hedges,  for  which  they  are  well  adapted,  as  they  bear 
pruning  well.    They  are  especially  c'Tective  near  the  border  of  water, 


Cedars  and  Cypresses 


2IQ 


or  in  sinRle  six'cimens  on  promini-nt  ix)ints.    They  arc  adapUd  to  a 
variety  of  soils  and    asily  transplanted. 

T.  occidenlalis  Linn,  (n)  is  our  native  northern  ArhoniUr  or  White 
Cedar,  a  medium-sized  tree,  narrowly  ronieal,  with  eompaet  hiad, 
which  furnishes  a  larpe  number  of  useful  nurserjmen's  varieties  with 
variegated  foliage, dwarf  habit, 
etc.  The  foliage  is  pale  green, 
becoming  brownish  in  winter. 
It  is  fine  for  avenue  planting 
and  also  makes  a  perfect 
hedge. 

T.  gigantea  Nutt.  (12),  the 
Pacific  Coast  Giant  Arhorvitcr, 
reaches  a  height  of  over  two 
hundred  feet,  grows  very  raj)- 
idly,  and  is  most  beautiful; 
the  short,  closely  set,  horizontal 
branches  are  pendulous  at  the 
tip.  Coming  from  a  moist, 
mild  climate,  it  can  be  used 
only  for  southern  planting,  un- 
less the  s^ed  is  brought  from 
Montana. 

The  Japanese  T.  Japonica 
Maxim.  (13),  semi-hardy  in  the 
north,  and  the  Persian  T.  ori- 
entalis  Linn.  (14),  fit  only  for 
southern  ranges,  offer  hardly 
any  superior  points. 

Thuyopsis.       T.    dolohrata 
nana  S.  &  Z.  (15),  Tom  Thumb, 
a  Japanese  Arborvitae  of  small  stature,  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful  of 
this  group,  semi-hardy  as  far  north  as  Massachusetts. 

Juniperus.  Juniper  or  Red  Cedar.  This  genus  contains  some  thirty- 
five  species,  mostly  small  trees,  of  pyramidal  and  even  columnar  form,  and 
rather  stiff  habit,  and  shrubs,  hence  useful  in  small  places,  the  low  forms 
for  rocky  slopes,  covering  of  sand  banks,  planting  of  lanes,  windbreaks, 
screens,  etc.  They  are  less  symmetrical  than  other  conifers.  They 
are,  as  a  rule,  adaptive  to  soil  conditions,  from  sand  to  lime,  from  swan.p 


Fio.  62. — Tom  Thumb  or  Japanese 
Arborvitae.  Thuyopsis  dolobrata  nana 
S  &  Z. 


220 


Trees  for  Shade  and  Ornament 


to  dry,  rocky,  or  Rravdly  hillsides,  and  among  tiic  lx\st  conifers  for  sea- 
sick plantinR,  Ikmhr  easily  transplanted.  AlthouKh  light-needing, 
they  arc  well  adapted  for  hedge  work.  They  are  free  from  insects, 
but  suffer  occasionally  from  a  fungus  on  the  hranchlets  (Juniper  apple). 
J.  Virginiana  Linn.  (i6),  the  native  Pencil  Cedar,  ranging  from 
Canada  to  Florida,  is  of  conical,  hut  very  variable  outline,  and  some- 


FiG.  63.  —  Cryptomeria  Japonica  Don. 

what  stiff  branch  habit,  but  often  with  slender  pendulous  branches; 
sometimes  columnar,  capable  of  being  trained  to  any  shape.  The 
foliage,  when  young,  is  sharp  pointed,  later  in  appressed  sprays  similar 
to  ArbonitE,  in  winter  sometimes  turning  dingy  brown.  It  is  adapted 
to  dry,  rocky  soils  as  weli  as  swamps,  but  thrives  best  in  well-drained, 
loose,  not  too  rich,  cool  l^am. 

Cryptomeria.    C.  Japonica  Don.  (17),  from  China  and  Japan,  is  only 


Cedars  and  Cypresses 


221 


somi-harfiy  nnnli  of  I'hiladdphia,  iinl'-s  com|)cnsattMl  hy  soil  rondi 
tions,  but  [)crffitly  successful  in  Wa^hmjjton.      It  is  the  most  inip<ir- 
tant   timl)cr  tree  of   Japa'-   Kit  has  hardly  any  su|H-rior  ornamental 
features. 

Libocedrus.     L.  licctirrcns   Torr.  (i8),  the  I'acific  Coast  Arbori'ilte  or 
Incense  Cedar,  is  a  lar^e,  rapid  Rrowing  tree,  for  planting  from  New 


'^^ 


Fig.  64.  —  Cunningiiamia  Sinensis  R.  Br. 

York  south.  It  i.-;  one  of  the  most  ornamental  conifers  in  its  symmet- 
rical narrow-cnnical  form  and  its  graceful,  strikingly  bright  green, 
feathery  foliage  in  frond-like  sprays,  placed  radially.  It  requires  well- 
drained  soil,  is  intolerant  of  shade,  hence  loses  lower  branches  early. 
It  is  especially  fit  for  formal  planting,  as  in  cemeteries. 

Taxodium.  T.distichnm  Rich. (:•.■■, I^JdCyfrf^s,^  (Icciduous c-^ifrr, 
tall,  and  of  ra;>id  growth  .inder  uvorable  conditions,  is  on(  of  the 
most  interesting  and  most  attractive  specimen  trees,  with  its  ligb     'reen. 


^jifi- 


i! 


222  Trees  for  Shade  and  Ornament 

most  graceful,  feathery  foliage  and  spiry  top.  Although  of  southern 
origin,  it  is  hardy  as  far  as  New  England,  and  although  a  tree  of  the 
swamp,  it  is  adaptive  to  many  soil  conditions,  but  thrives  best  in  moist, 
s;  .>dy  soil,  although  it  will  do  well  m  drier  situations,  varying  in  form 
according  to  soil. 

Sequoia.  The  tw..  giant  tree  species  of  this  genus,  differing  widely 
from  each  other,  but  both  exceedingly  l)cautiful  and  ornamental,  have 
in  the  United  States  hardly  yet  been  appreciated  for  their  ornamental 
value:  they  are  less  planted  here  than  in  Europe,  and  less  than  they 


Fig.  65.  —  Abies  Nordmanniana  Spach. 

deserve.  Their  climatic  limits,  to  be  sure,  make  success  doubtful  in 
the  East,  except  in  certain  positions  where  in  the  soil  compensation  can 
be  made  for  the  drouthy  climate,  and  also  provided  that  the  plant  mate- 
rial is  collected  from  the  driest  sites. 

5.  sempen'irens  Endl.  (20),  Redwood,  the  most  beautiful  of  the  two, 
is  less  hardv  than  the  Big  Tree,  and  requires  a  cool,  humid  atmosphere, 
for  which  e'ven  a  deep,  well-watered  soil  does  not  readily  compensate. 
S.  gigantea  Decne.  {21),  the  Big  Tree,  is  hardier  than  the  Red- 
wood and  has  sustained  itself  in  Rochester,  \.  Y.,  for  forty  years,  although 
now  showing  signs  of  suffering.  With  a  foliage  between  the  Cypress 
and  the  Arborxita:,  and  a  gracefully  curved  branch  habit,  it  forms  a 
beautiful  lawn  tree.    It  is  not  selective  as  to  soil,  except  that  the  deep 


lim 


Cedars  and  Cypresses 


223 


Fig.  66.  —  A  hies  Cephalonica  Loud. 

root  system  makes  a  deep  soil  preferable  and  early  transplanting  neces- 
sary. 

Cunninghamia.  C.  Sinensis  R.  Br.  (22),  from  China,  fit  only  for  the 
South,  or  in  more  northern  latitudes  with  careful  protection,  is  a  me- 
dium-sized tree,  rapid-growing,  in  form  resembling  the  Araucaria  or 
the  firs,  but  the  branches  are  more  pendulous  at  the  tips;  the  foliage  is 
light  green,  shining  alxjve,  whitish  beneath,  and  sharp-pointed;  shade 
enduring. 


224         Trees  for  Shade  and  Ornament 


11  ii 


FIRS 

Abies  (see  also  Pkea,  Spruce).    This  genus  contains  some  twenty - 
three  species  from  northern  and  mountainous  habitats,  requiring  cool 


Fig.  67.  —  Abies  Pinsapo  Boiss. 


positions  for  best  success.  They  are  mostly  tall,  shapely  conical  trees 
of  symmetrical,  slilT,  and  formal  l)ranch  habit,  but  less  so  than  the 
spruces;  mostly  with  blunt-jiointed,  flat  leaves,  arranged  comb-like; 
densely' foliaged,  the  leaves  i)ersi.,ting  for  seven  to  twelve  years,  cones 
standing  erect,  the  scales  falling  otT  when  mature.  They  are  usually 
of  slow  but  persistent  growth,  and   highly  shade-enduring.     Moist, 


Firs 


225 


deep  soil  is  required,  since  the  firs  are  deep-rooted  and  come  generally 
from  humid  climates  (mountains)  or  swamps.  They  are  little  infested 
by  insects,  but  are  apt  to  suffer  from  drought  and  frost,  also  from 

fungi. 

The  fine  Pacific  Coast  species,  A.  amabilis  (23),  grandis  '24),  mag- 

nifica  (25),  nobilis  (26),  are 
unfortunately  not  hardy  in 
the  East.     The  eastern  A. 
balsamea  (27) and /I.  Fraseri 
(28),  and  the  European  A. 
pectinata  (29),   lack    desir- 
able  ornamental    value    in 
comparison  with  other  firs. 
A.  concolor  Lind.  &  Gord. 
(30),  if  selected  from  Colo- 
rado    and    not    from    the 
P',        Toast  range,  is  per- 
\   <"      ardy   in   the    East, 
:  the  spray  of  the  sea. 
1    i„  ...ost  ornamental,  with 
its    long,    soft,    gray-green 
needles  and  splendid  form, 
is  of  rapid  growth  and  with- 
out any  troubles  —  the  best 
fir  for  planting. 

A.Nordmanniana  Spach. 
(31),  from  the  Caucasus,  is 
as  hardy  as  the  former,  and, 
with  its  rich,  lustrous,  heavy 
foliage,  dark  green  above, 
silvery  underneath,  the  op- 
posite in  color  of  the  former, 
and  also  one  of  the  finest, 

most  dignified  ornamentals,  retaining  its  fine  form   long.     It  is  free 
from  troubles,  and  especially  frost-hardy. 

A.  Cephalonica  Loud.  (32),  and  var.  Apollinis  (32a),  from  Greece, 
are  more  spreading  in  habit  than  the  former  two,  and  somewhat  spruce- 
like in  appearance.  They  arc  hardy  south  of  New  York  and  more 
adapted  for  southern  planting  than  most  firs. 


Fig.  68.  —  Abies  Cilicica  ("arr. 


V:      \ 


226 


Trees  for  Shade  and  Ornament 


A.  Pinsapo  Boiss.  (33),  from  Spain,  is  a  small  tree  for  southern 
planting,  merely  as  a  sjx^cimen  tree  for  the  interest  of  its  peculiar,  rigid, 
sharp-pointed,  thick  foliage,  set  arounc'.  its  branches  and  shoots,  giv- 
ing it  a  stiff  unique  appearance,  entirely  different  from  all  other  firs. 

A.  Cilicica  Carr.  (34),  from  Asia  Minor,  is  hardy  on  the  whole, 
but  liable  t.  damage  by  frost;  a  small  tree  with  foliage  dark  green 
above,  siK  ji7  white  below. 


(•!r 


|i:'ii 
!*!! 


Fig.  69.  —  Abies  Veitchii  S.  &  Z. 

A.  Veitchii  S.  C.  Z.  (35),  and  liomolepis  S.  &.  Z.  (16), both  from  Japan, 
are  both  very  hardy  and  of  the  most  beautiful  form  when  young. 

Gingko.  G.  biloba  Linn.  (37)  {Salisburia  adiantijoha),  Maiden  Hair 
Tree,  a  medium -sized  tree  from  northern  China,  is  the  most  interesting 
and  unique  conifer,  a  botanical  curiosity,  with  broad,  fan-shaped,  decid- 
uous leaves  instead  of  needles,  and  fleshy,  berry-like  (ill-smelling)  fruit 
instead  of  cones.  It  is  quite  hardy  in  New  York,  and  semi-hardy  as 
far  north  as  Ottawa.  It  is  picturesque  rather  than  ornamental,  with  a 
straggling  branch  habit,  of  irregular,  open,  conical  form  (with  occa- 
sional exceptions).  .Mthough  used  for  street  planting  in  Washington, 
it  is  hardly  to  Ix-  recommended  for  this  purpose,  on  account  of  its  form 
and  undesirable  fruit.  It  is  best  planted  in  single  specimens  on  lawns 
and  near  houses,  and  perhaps  massed  with  deciduous  trees  and  shrubs 
of  leathery,  duik  gitcii  fuiiapo.  It  is  a  very  rapid  grower  and,  in  this 
country,  absolutely  free  from  insects. 


Hemlocks  and  Bastard  Hemlocks        227 


Fig.  70.  —  Abies  homolepis  S.  &  Z. 


HEMLOCKS  AND  BASTARD  HEMLOCKS 

Und'^r  this  name  we  mav  group  two  genera  of  tall  trees,  closely  allied 
Imtanicallv.  which  have  also  similar  habit  of  foliage,  cones,  and  branch- 
ing namelv,  the  true  hemlock   Tsuga  (seven  species)  (lormerly  botan- 


228         Trees  for  Shade  and  Ornament 


I 


ically  ranged  under  Abies  and  popularly  under  Spruce),  and  Pseudo- 
tsuga,  also  formerly  considered  under  Abies  and  variously  called  Doug- 
las or  Red  or  Yellow  Spruce  or  Fir,  or  Oregon  Pine. 

If  symmetry,  formality,  stiffness  and  stateliness  are  the  character- 
istics of  firs  and  spruces,  graceful  elegance  of  form,  unsymmetrical  yet 
regular,  pendulousness  of  branch  tips,  and  softness  of  foliage  character- 
ize the  hemlocks,  the  most  beautiful  of  our  conifers.  Being  of  alpine 
or  northern  origin,  the  hemlocks  prefer  a  cool,  humid  atmosphere  and 
cool,  well-watered,  light  loamy  soils;  while  they  still  grow,  to  be  sure,  in 
dry  soils,  they  do  not  thrive  in  wet  ones.  They  transplant  easily  (not 
from  the  woods),  but  resent  changes  in  their  surroundings  when  once 
adapted.  They  are  free  from  insects  and  other  troubles,  except  that 
the  Douglas  Fir  must  be  selected  from  those  localities  of  its  wide  range 
which  prevent  its  succumbing  to  drought  or  frost.  They  are  very 
shade-enduring  trees,  fit  for  planting  singly  and  in  groups  as  a  back- 
ground to  flower  and  especially  rock  gardens,  as  undergrowth  for  taller 
evergreens,  or  among  broad-leaved  evergreens  like  rhododendron,  and 
for  hedges  which  are  not  to  be  too  formal. 

Tsuga,  T.  Canadensis  Curr.  (38),  the  common  Hemlock  of  the  north- 
eastern United  States,  ro-.ging  south  to  Georgia,  on  th»  northern 
slopes  of  mountains.  Its  very  dense,  dark  green  foliage  with  faint 
white  lines  on  underside  is  the  most  pleasing  of  all  conifer  foliage, 
both  in  detail  as  well  as  in  mass.  It  is  a  moderately  rapid,  but  per- 
sistent grower,  and  free  from  troubles,  it  is  best  planted  singly  on 
lawns,  where  at  least  fifty  feet  of  growing  space  is  available,  and  in 
groups,  also  for  hedges.    Drouthy  situations  should  be  avoided. 

T.  Caroliniana  Engelm.  (39),  the  hemlock  of  the  Carolina  Moun- 
tains, is  more  compact  in  form  and  foliage  and  c:  lighter  hue.  It 
seems  hardy  north  to  Ontario. 

Of  our  two  western  hemlocks,  T.  Mer'ensiana  Carr.  (40),  the  com- 
mon hemlock  of  the  lower  mountain  range.,,  shows  little  difference  from 
our  Eastern  species,  but 

T.  Hookeriana  Carr.  (41),  formeriy  Patloniana  and  Mertenstana, 
the  Alpine  Hemlock  of  the  Pacific  Coast  near  the  timber  line,  as  yet 
little  planted,  is  very  distinctive,  with  a  wealth  of  dense,  dark,  crowded, 
bluish-green  foliage,  and  quite  a  picturesque,  unique,  terraced  arrange- 
ment of  branches  in  tiers.  The  trunk  of  old  trees  too  is  unique,  with  a 
brown-colored  bark  in  fissures  resembling  that  of  the  oak. 

Pseudotsuga.   P.  taxifolia  Britt.  (42)  (formerly  Douglasi),  Douglas 


i-4,ILJIL.UIJI.Mi 


Larches 


229 


Fir  is  one  of  the  most  important,  large  timber  trees  of  the  West  ^^•.th  a 
wd'e  range,  from  the  arid  sIoik.  of  the  Rocky  Mounta.ns  m  Mex.co 
i  Arizona  to  the  humid  shores  of  the  Pacific  in  Bnt.sh  Columh.a. 
For  ea'er^  planting  it  is  most  important  to  secure  plant  material  from 
fhe  pro^r  r'gion  (high  northern  sIojk-s  of  eastern  Rocky  Mounta.ns) 
n  or^efto  secure  hardiness.    For  lack  of  pro,>er  selection  of  sc-ed. 
Inv  failures  in  all  points  for  which  the  species  is  famous  have  occurred. 
Sther^^se  Tt  il  one^f  the  finest  .-nifers,  rivaling  the  hemlocks  wh.ch 
utrmbe    in  the  pendulous  hab.t  of  its  branchlets  and  in  Us  fle.x.blc 
1, rje   while  in  the  greater  length  of  the  latter  it   resembles  the  fi  . 
b^it   purple  bud  is  the  sure  mark  of  distinction).     Its  pendent    one 
^rt  idenTbracts  extending  from  under  the  scales  add  to  Us  mtere. 
Ind  beauty.    It  varies  greatly  in  pc-ndulousness  and  m  length  and  color 
o?  the  foliage,  which  sometimes  is  as  silvery  blue  as  the  blue  spruce 
The  mountain  form  is  best,  hence  selection  is  necessary     It  ,s  adapt.ve 
to  In  sdls,  but  prefers  lighter  ones.     In  suitable  local mes.t  .s  one  of 
he  1st  rapid-growing  conifers,  and  easily  transplanted,  bemg  shallow-- 
rootTdlike  the  spruce  and,  also  like  the  latter,  tolerant  of  shade.     To 
emnhasize  its  beauty  it  is  best  planted  in  single  trees. 

r^a'^arpaLemmon.  (4.6/.),  a  species  lately  ditTerent.ated  from 
the  former,  comes  from  southern  California,  and  hence  .s  not  fit  for 
eastern  planting,  at  least  not  in  the  North. 

LARCHES 

Larix  and  Pseudolarix.    Ten  species  of  tall  and  medium-sized  trees, 
of  northern  and  alpine  range.    What  the  white  birch  -P-ents  ^^^^^^^^ 
the  broad-leaved  trees,  the  larch  represents  among  the  comfer    name  y 
the  elements  of  delicate  feminine  grace,  especially  when  he  ^^^^J 
light  green  foliage  of  earliest  spring  appears  on  the  small  protulx-  an  e. 
of  spurs  of  the  slender  branches.     It  is  the  first  tree  to  leaf  out  (the.. 
b^ig  deciduous-leaved  conifers),  turning  into  golden  ye"-  au  -- 
tints  and  adding  beauty  by  the  cones,  which  are  purple  red  when  young. 
The  branch  sysL  is  L-nder,  sometimes  rx^ndulous;  Us  corneal  ou  l.ne 
I  often  straggling  and  not  ver>.  beautiful,  but  if  Pl-d  a^--!^^^J^^ 
background  is  striking  and  picturesque  with  Us  sp.ry  top.        hey  are 
ve  y  r  pid  growers  and  most  light-needing,  and  hence  ht  only   or  open 
Ntry  rap     g  ,  ,^,  ^hev  are  subject  to  insects  (leaf  miners) 


23© 


Trees  for  Shade  and  Ornament 


and  where  picturesqueness  is  desired  in  bold,  wild  lansdcape,  rather 
than  on  cultivated  lawns,  also  perhaps  for  formal  avenues  and  accent 
trees  in  large  parks,  although  in  later  life  they  lose  their  formality. 

The  one  mostly  planted  is  — 

L.  decidua  Mill.  (43)  (Europcea),  from  FlurofK*;  a  medium-sized  moun- 
tain tree,  apt  to  suffer  in  the  lowlands  unless  compensated  in  t!ie  soil  for 
our  drouthy  atmosphere,  although  otherwise  net  selective  as  to  soil;  it 
will  grow  in  the  most  barren,  rocky  sites,  for  which  it  is  indeed  best 
fitted.  It  is  easily  transplanted,  but  should  be  planted  early  in 
spring,  as  it  buds  out  very  early. 


Fig.  71.  —  Golden  I^rch.     Pseudolarix  K aem p/er i  Gord. 

L.  laricina  Koch.  {Americana)  (44),  the  native,  northeastern  Amer- 
ican Larch  or  Tamarack,  a  medium-sized  tree,  is  very  different  from 
the  Eluropean,  being  a  tree  of  the  swamp;  less  dense  and  compact  in 
growth,  less  graceful  and  symmetrical  in  form,  with  shorter  foliage. 
It  is  adaptive  to  wet  places,  and  is  Ijest  used  in  open  groups.  Unfor- 
tunately this  species  is  subject  to  a  destructive  sawfly,  which  also  attacks 
other  larches. 

The  other  American  larches,  L.  Lyallii  Pari.  (45),  a  small  tree  from 
timl)er-iine  of  the  northern  Rocky  Mountains,  and  L.  occidentalis  Nutt 
(46),  Western  Larch,  a  tall  tree  (up  to  250  feet)  of  the  arid  eastern 
mountain  slopes  from  Oregon  north,  are  hardly  tested  as  to  their 
ornamental  value.  The  Japanese  L.  lepiolepis  Murr.  (47)  docs  not 
add  much  nevvf  beauty,  except  in  its  deeper  golden  autumn  tints. 

Pseudolarix.    P.  Kcempferi  Gord.  (48),  Golden  Larch,  is  a  large  tree 


Pines 


231 


from  China  resembling  the  true  larches  very  closely,  except  that  the 
clusters  or  rosettes  of  leaves  are  larRcr,  the  leaves  longer,  turning  to  a 
clear  yellow  autumn  ti  r.  different  from  other  larches.  It  is  hardy 
north  of  Massachusetts.  Its  freedom  from  insect  pests  and  fungus 
diseases  seems  to  be  its  special  advantage. 


PINES 

Pinus.  The  largest  genus  of  the  conifers,  with  about  seventy-five 
species,  of  which  over  half  are  found  in  North  America,  and  altogether 
over  six  hundred  varieties  in  form,  from  mere  shrubs  through  all  the 
gradations  of  ^ize  to  the  tal'est  trees  (over  two  hundred  feet)  and  in 
every  variety  of  form.  There  are  among  them  some  of  the  hardiest 
conifers,  adaptive  to  the  driest  soils  and  drouthiest  climate,  as  well  as 
to  swamps  and  humid  climates,  with  representatives  ranging  almost  to 
the  Arctics  and  to  near  the  equator,  in  valleys,  and  in  mountains  to 
near  timber-line. 

Highly  important  as  timber  trees,  their  ornamental  value  is,  with 
few  exceptions,  less  than  that  of  most  other  conifers.  Yet  by  the  intro- 
duction of  large  masses  and  proper  variety,  as  background,  a  strong 
characteristic  sky-line  can  be  secured,  as  with  no  other  group.  Some- 
what like  the  spmces  in  habit,  although  less  fonnal,  the  white  pines 
should  lend  themselves  to  avenue  planting,  while  yellow  pines,  bemg 
more  rugged  in  habit,  are  more  fit  for  picturesqueness,  particularly  as 
accent  trees  and  for  sky-line  effects. 

Owing  to  less  symmetrical  fomi  and  more  rapid  changes  in  habit, 
the  awkward  period  intervening  between  the  conical  young  form  and 
the  picturesque  old  crown  (broad,  flattened,  or  rounded)  is  more  pro- 
nounced and  more  extended  than  with  other  conifers.  The  foliage  is 
less  dense,  though  longer  and  more  flexible,  persisting  only  two  or  three 
years,  in  fascicles  of  two  to  five,  which,  in  the  older  trees,  is  crowded  in 
tufts  to  the  end  of  the  branches.  They  are  all  light-needing,  mostly 
rapid  growers,  with  variable  root  system,  but  usually  deep-rooted,  and 

easily  handled. 

There  are  generally  three  groups  to  be  distinguished,  which  differ 
in  character  of  development,  soil  requirements,  ornamental  value,  as 
well  as  ii.  other  respects,  namely  the  white  pines,  the  yellow  pines,  and 

the  nut  pines. 

WHITE  PINES.    This  is  the  most  useful  and  at  the  same  time  the 


232         Trees  for  Shade  and  Ornament 


most  omamcntal  group,  with  tall  to  medium-sized  trees,  tufts  of  long, 
soft,  dark  green  needles  with  a  whitish  cast,  five  in  a  sheath,  long,  pen- 


[ill 


Fig.  72.  —  Corcan  Pine.     Pintis  Koraiensis  S.  &  Z. 

(lent  cum-s,  and  a  habit  of  growth  more  nearly  like  the  spnirr,  preserv- 
ing their  conical  form  into  old  age;  indeed,  there  is  hardly  an  awkward 
stage  discernible.    They  are  rapid  growers  and  somewhat  shade-endur- 


f 


Pines 


233 


I 


ing.    For  best  development  and  health,  these  require  somewhat  better 
soils  than  the  next  group,  but  will  grow  in  almost  any  soil. 

Pinm  Strobus  Linn.  (49),  our  common  IVhite  Pine,  a  large  timber 
tree,  with  a  fine  feathery  foliage,  is  one  of  the  very  best  conifers  for 


Fig.  73.  —  Greek  Pine.    Pinus  Peuce  Griseb. 

northern  planting  in  specimens,  groups,  groves,  hedges,  etc.  Its  range 
extends  on  the  mountains  from  Canada  to  Georgia,  but  in  the  valley 
it  is  hardly  satisfactory  below  Mason  and  Dixon's  lim-.  It  is  best 
suited  to  medium  soils;  in  dry  and  poor  soils  it  remains  slender  and 
assumes  a  graceful  tapering  shape,  in  compact  soils  its  form  become'' 


dL 


234         Trees  for  Sha"   aiui   Ornam^-nt 

o.m,.ct.  A  very  rapi-l  and  p<-rs:  vnt  ,r.v.r.  a.d  ^>-J--''";^' 
it  is\vcll  .uited  for  mixtu  .  with  .l.d.Juov..  ccs,  ..specially  .be  Ight- 
folia,.d  ones.  Infonanatdy.  tw-  ,>est.s  arc-  ir>.ur>lin^  n:  the-  Coto.v 
Seal',  which  is.  however,  not  ven  detrimental  an.l  '  -  »x.  -mbaed 
(,«,,;  IS.),  and  tin  Torlrix  (pa,.  tC.SK  -»-h  deM.  v.  lead.  ..  pvms 
rise  to  unsightly  double  lea.lers  -,  can.lelabra,  an.^   ,s  Ic^s  easily  pre- 

''T'/.imftrr/M«./  I)..u«l.  (sO.  th''  Su^nr  rn.r,.i  „..rthem  California, 
a  magniruent  repre.sc-ntatne  of  th.  ,n.up.  with  .larker  fohage  and  enor 
mous  cones  (one  t.,  iw..  fe..  long),  is.  in  the  Kast.    ard.  as  lar  north  as 
Mas.sachusctts  in  g.«.d.  ,leep  ..il>.  but  raher  a  '^'^  f'-^^';-^  '  ''"'"^^ 
suj..rior  to  the  white  pi.>^  ornamentally,  and  probably  -ubject  I.)  the 

"T  tZu^a  Don.  (5.).  the  5/...  Pine  of  the  West  If  collected 
from  its  kocky  Mountain  habitats,  it  woul.l  Ik-  ha^  '  ,  but  has  hardly 
any  points  s.,H.rior  to  P.  StroLus,  except  a  lighter  whif.b  foliage,  from 
which  it  derives  its  name. 

Four  foreigners  in  this  group  descr^■c  attention: 
P   Koraiensis  S.  &  Z.  (5^),  f"'"!  <^^^''^  a"''   '^^'an.  .-s  a  very  hardy 
tree.'for  small  places,  with  darker,  bluish,  ver>  dense  foliage  and  com- 
pact habit.  su,x-ri.>r  ornamentally  to  our  while  pine.     An  e.hble.  fine 
flavored  seed  (nuD  adds  to  its  interest. 

P    Pence  Griseb.  {^^),  from  Greece,  of  similar  habit  in    color  a-s 
the  preceding,  is  a  small  tree,  growing  sU.wly  and  forminu  a  narrow 

conical  crown.  , 

P.  excelsa  Wall.  (54),  the  Bhutan   Pine,   from    the    Ca       -us,  and 

P    Ayacahuite  Ehrenb.    (55).  the    Mexican   WInte   Pine,     .-th  with 

longer  bunches  of  slender  needles.   ,ewhat  pendulous  hr..^^  -s  an. 

loose  or  open  form,  are  adapted  onl>         x.uthem  plantinp^  aah.,.^h  the 
Bhutan  pine  is  semi-hardy  in  the  North. 

P.  Cembra  Linn.  (56),  the  Swiss  Sime  P»ie,  a   .     *■ 
white  pine,  lacks  grace  of  foliage,  llv    needles  being  sl.r, 
the  form  of  the  old  trees  i-  it  superior.     It  is  very  ha 
remarkably  slow  growth,  and  therefore  to  be  recommend. 
a  slow  grower  is  wanted. 

YELLOW  PIN'KS.     This  is  the  largest  group  of  pine- 
varied  in  ornamental  value  than  Ihe  u.rr^rr  gruup,  but  ^  -.e. 
less  value  than  the  white  pines,  because  of  the  ri^'idity  of  foliage  . 
stifTer,  more  straggling  habit,  and  long,  awkw.      stage  ol  develoi 


ire,  also  a 

id  only  n 

but  if 

only  -e 

■;tirh  mi- I- 


Pines 


235 


The  old  trt-cs,  as  .1  ruii    develop  1  l)roa<     nmhnli      iiajM'  or  <prca(lin(» 
crown,  ex«i>t  somr  of  [   t-  wcslcrii  pines,        1  h,         ast  in      cir  native 


Fig.  74. — Mexican  Whit-^  Pine.     Pinus  Ayacahi.       Ehrenb. 


mountain  climate,  preserve  a  tonicai  outline  ihroughoui.  The  yellow 
pines  generally  are  not  as  rapid  growers  as  *he  white  pines,  and  more 
light-needing  but  adaptive  to  poorer  soils.     For  single  specimens  on 


236        Trees  for  Shade  and  Ornament 

br«>d  iawns,  o,  .o  crovvn  a  h..d,a„d  point,  th.  broad  majesUc  sUUU- 
ness  of  the  larger  ones  is  useful. 


^>s^; 


P,C.  75.  _  Scotch  Pine.     Pi»us  silvestris  Linn. 

A  «,«<=»  nlanfed  because  hitherto  the  cheapest, 
The  two  be.st  known  and  most  plantea,  oecausc 

"""o     v      ,  •   T  ;nn    (^-7)  the  ScoUh  Pine,  a  tall  tree,  native  of  north- 
P.  stlvestnsUrm.  (5  Uhe  -^^  ^     j^Uy  of  growth, 

em  Europe,  which  ,s  noted  font,  f rugal  y         K  ^^^^  ^^^ 

but  has  only  small  ornamental  value,  with  ito  stiti, 


Pines 


^37 


gray-green  foliage.    The  variety  rigcnsis  (57a),  Riga  Pine,  from  Russia, 
is  reputed  to  be  much  superior  on  account  of  its  straighter,  more  sym- 


J  •>  Mi:!  \!^, 


Fig.  76.  —  Black  Pine.     Pinits  Laricio  Poir. 

metrical  growth,  while  the  common  Scotch  pine  is  apt  to  grow  early 
into  straggling  habits.  But  the  slow  habit  of  the  tree  of  northern  origin 
must  be  taken  into  consideration.  In  groups  or  masses  at  a  di.stance 
Scotch  pines  make  a  picturesque  apiJcarance. 


238         Trees  for  Shade  and  Ornament 

P  Laricio  Poir.  (58),  or  its  variety  Austriaca,  Corsican,  and  Aus- 
trian or  Black  Pine,  almost  as  frugal,  hardy,  and  as  rapid  a  grower  as 


Pic  „.  —Calabrian  Pine.     Pinus  brutia  Tenor. 

the  Scotch  nine,  ditlers  from  it  i.i  the   dark,  deep,  Wue-Rreen    almost 
bllcM-e  foliage  -  the  densest  of  the  pines  -  and  the  st.ll  stouter 


IH^' 


Pines 


239 


branches  forming  a  compact  growth  of  coarse  character,  with  a  round 
head.  Its  adaptability  to  limestone  soils,  to  poorly  drained  ones  and 
to  seacoasts,  especially  of  the  species  itself,  is  useful.  It  is  specially 
suitable  for  backgrounds  in  masses  and  quite  desirable  for  lawns.  It 
thrives  well  in  cities  and  sets  off  well  igainst  city  architecture. 

A  near  relative  of  the  Austrian  pine  from  Calabria,  P.  brutia  Tenor 
(59),  in  color  between  the  two  former,  with  longer,  wavy  tufts  of  leaves, 
offers  additional  ornamental  value. 

Our  own  species  have  been  much  more  rarely  planted,  although 
several  of  them  are  superior  to  the  exotics;  the  best  of  the  northern 

ones  is  — 

P,  resinosa  Ait.  (60),  Red  or  Norway  Pine  (does  not  grow  in  Nor- 
way!), with  its  long,  rich  foliage,  a  growth  as  rapid  as  the  White  or  Scotch 
Pine,  and  a  more  symmetrical  habit  and  more  sturdy  form,  although 
becoming  open  in  later  age;  is  adaptive  to  sandy  and  gravelly  soils,  as 
well  as  to  swampy  conditions.  Remarkably  free  from  troubles.  Good 
in  massing  with  other  species. 

P.  divaricata  Dum.  (Banksiana)  {61),  Jack  or  Gray  Pine,  is  a  small 
tree  with  slender,  flexible,  spreading  branches  (apple-tree-like),  and 
light  gray  to  bright  green,  short  foliage.  It  is  the  most  northern  pine, 
and  adaptive  to  any  soil.  Of  botanical  interest  rather  than  of  high 
ornamental  value,  yet  graceful  withal,  and  with  a  drooping  habit,  it 
is  well  adapted  to  planting  in  small  places.  Its  cones  remain  mostly 
closed  until  fire  opens  them,  it  is  the  "fire  pine"  of  the  North. 

P.  rigida  Mill.  (6-),  Northern  Pitch  Pine,  has  value  for  special 
purposes  only,  nar.ely,  on  sterile,  dry,  and  rocky  sites,  where  it  often 
assumes  picturesq  le  form;  and  for  seaside  planting,  on  sand  dunes, 
etc.  Its  ability  to  sprout  from  the  stump  when  cut  or  burnt  has  been 
made  much  of,  but  the  sprouts  do  not  grow  into  trees. 

P.  pungens  MichA.  (63),  Table  Mountain  Pine,  is  a  small  tree  rang- 
ing from  the  mountains  of  Pennsylvania  to  Georgia  and  Tennessee, 
with  broad,  spreading  crown,  and  long,  dark  green  foliage;  picturesque 
rather  than  ornamental.  The  peculiarity  of  retaining  its  large  closed 
cones  on  the  branches  for  many  years  adds  to  its  interest.  It  is  adapted 
to  the  sai.ie  places  as  P.  rigida,  but  for  more  southern  range;  the  south- 
em  "fire  pine." 

Of  southern  species  there  are  several  of  ornamental  merit. 

P.  palustris  Mill.  (64),  Longleaf  Pine,  a  tall  tree  of  slow  growth, 
fit  only  for  planting  south  of  Washington.    With  its  long  (one  foot  in 


I  i 


I 


240         Trees  for  Shade  and  Ornament 

length),  brush-like,  lively  blue-green  foliage,  enclosing  its  large  silvery- 
white  bud,  with  its  candelabra-like,  upturned  ends  of  branches,  it  is  a 
striking  specimen  tree.  Its  unusually  deep-growing  root^  require  deep, 
well  drained  sand  soils,  and  it  is  difficult  l  >  transplant,  except  in  small 

specimens. 

P.  echimla  Mill,  imilh  Mx.)  (165),  Shortleaf  Pine,  extending  lis 
botanical  limits  into  Northern  States,  compares  favorably  with  any  of  t!ie 
yellow  pines  of  similar  character,  and  should  be  more  widely  planted 

than  it  is. 

P.  glabra  Walt.  (66),  Spruce  Pine,  one  of  the  far  southern  species, 
with  a  very  hue,  flexible,  slender  foliage  and  globular  form,  is  one  of 
the  most  promising  ornamental  pines  for  southern  planting,  although 
as  yet  hardly  known. 

P.  ponde'rosa  Dougl.  (67),  Bull  Pine,  is  a  stately  and  very  hardy  tree 
from  the  western  mountains;  of  long,  stout,  light-colored  foliage;  re- 
tains its  conical  shape  in  deep  soils,  but  flattening  its  crown  in  poor 
soils.  Its  ornamental  value  is  hardly  established,  but  it  promises 
well,  being  at  least  equal,  if  not  superior,  to  the  Austrian  pine  which  it 

resembles. 

The  European  species,  P.  Pinaster  Sol.  (68)  (maritima),  Cluster  Pine, 
resembling  P.  Laricio,  but  not  adapted  to  limestone  soils,  nor  hardy 
with  us,  offers  no  s{3ecial  j)oints  of  ornamental  value. 

P.  Mugltus  Scop.  (69)  and  P.  Pumilio  Haenke  (70),  (montana  Mill), 
the  two  popular  dwarf  pines  from  the  Pyrenees  and  .\lps,  are  shrubs 
rather  than  trees,  growing  up  with  several  stems  from  the  ground,  or 
at  least  branching  low,  and  often  growing  in  bush  form.  Where  a  low 
mass  of  foliage  is  desired,  as  to  hide  unsightly  places,  etc.,  they  furnish 
an  excellent  material.  They  are  much  used  in  rock  gardens  and  formal 
plantings  whh  other  evergreens,  and  are  perfectly  hardy.  Numerous 
varieties  are  in  existence. 

SPRUCES 

Picea.  (Formerly  confused  with  Abies,  or  the  names  transposed, 
just  as  the  common  names  of  spruce  and  fir,  and  even  hemlock,  are  often 
promiscuously  used  or  interchanged,  although  the  distinction  between 
the  different  genera  is  easily  made.)  There  are  in  existence  some  eigh- 
teen species  of  northern  or  alpine  range,  which  are  not  fit  for  southern 
planting,  although  the  Norway  spruce  appears  perfectly  at  home  in 
Washington.    Tall  to  medium  size,  and  some  small  trees;  with  sharp- 


Spruces 


241 


pointed,  four-sided  needles  set  spirally  around  the  branchlets  (persist- 
ent five  to  seven  years);  the  pendulous  cones  remaining  entire  when 
falling;  they  are  densely  foliaged  an^l  shade-enduring  to  a  large  degree. 
They  are  medium  to  fast  growers,  very  symmetrical  in  youth,  the  crown 


Fig.  78.  —  Dwarf  Pine.     Pinus  Mugkus  Scop. 

generally  rounding  off  in  old  age.  They  are  shallow-rooted,  and  there- 
fore easily  transplanted.  Most  of  them  are  adaptive  to  any  soil  on 
northern  slopes,  except  the  extremes  of  dry  or  wet,  but  the  best  form 
is  attained  in  fresh,  deep  soils.  Thiy  are  adapted  to  planting  as  speci- 
mens and  in  groups,  for  windbreaks,  shelter,  hedges  (stand  pruning 
well),  also  for  avenues,  and  as  a  foreground  tree  in  large  deciduous 
plantations. 


f 


2^2 


Trees  for  Shade  and  Ornament 


The  best  known,  most  popular,  and  most  planted,  because  cheap, 
easily  handled,  growing  most  rapidly,  and  being  very  beautiful  when 
on  satisfactory  st)ils  and  used  with  judgment  as  to  situation,  is  — 

P.  excelsa  Link.  (71),  Norway  Spruce,  a  large  tree  from  Europe  01 
greatest  economic  as  well  as  ornamental  value,  with  its  grand  sym- 
metry of  graceful,  flowing  outline,  formed  by  the  Gothic  arches  of 
branches  and  often  gracefully  pendent  branchlets,  beset  with  dark  green 
foliage.    A  very  rapid  grower,  making  sometimes  three  or  four  feet  m 
a  season.     In  alxiut  thirty  years  it  reaches  the  awkward  stage,  when 
lower  branches  die.    This  hapj^ns  earlier  in  poorer  sites,  where  it  is 
also  thinner  in  foliage,  and  becomes  ragged  and  open.    It  is  very  van- 
able  and  there  are  in  existence  a  great  many  forms,  dwarf  and  other- 
wise, which  should  Ix-  used  with  discretion.    The  specimens  for  plant- 
ing Ihould  be  selected  from  those  which  have  developed  the  long,  pen- 
dent shoots,  for  in  these  consists  its  beauty  when  planted  in  smgle 
specimens.     For  grouping,  the  stifTer  forms  may  be  used.    To  achieve 
its  best  appearance  in  singleness,  not  less  than  thirty  feet  growmg  space 
should  be  allowed.     It  is  well  adapted  for  windbreaks,  screens,  and 
hedges,  standing  the  shearing  as  well  as  any  species. 

The  nearest  approach  in  appearance  to  the  Norway  spruce  of  our 
northeastern  species  is  — 

P.  rubra  Link,  (rubcns)  (72),  Red  Spruce,  the  common  lumber  tree. 
Although  picturesque,  it  is  less  ornamental  and  a  ver>'  slow  grower;  a 
medium-sized  tree,  less  adaptive  than  the  Norway  spruce,  and  so  far 

not  often  planted. 

Ornamentally,  the  best  species  of  our  Eastern  States,  with  a  range  to 

the  northwest,  is— 

P.  alba  Link.  (73),  White  Spruce,  a  medium  sized  tree  and  one  of  our 
most  hardy  conifers,  retaining  its  symmetrical  form  and  full  branchmg 
longer  than  any  other.  It  is  attractive  by  its  cheerful,  light  bluish- 
green,  rather  long,  slender  foliage.  It  is  adaptive  to  drouthy  condi- 
tions if  collected  from  projx^r  localities,  e.^.,  Black  Hills;  to  seashores 
and  to  a  variety  of  soils  from  dry-  to  swampy.  Its  compact  habit  fit  it 
for  small  places,  at  (M.ints,  and  in  front  of  groups  with  darker  foliage. 
The  only  other  native  spruce  suitable  for  planting  is  — 
P.  pungeus  Lngelm.  (74),  Blue  Spruce,  from  Colorado  and  other 
parts  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  noted  for  its  remarkable  blue  to  silvery 
foliage.  It  is  hardy  and  adaptive  to  drouthy  conditions.  The  blue 
color  for  which  it  is  prized  is  not  only  variously  distributed  among 


■  1.1U  L- 


■IK 


^enm 


Spruces 


243 


individuals,  but  its  persistence  depends  on  satisfactory  (well  watered) 
soil  conditions.  It  varies  Krt-atly  in  individuals.  Two  nurserymen, 
Koster  and  Parry,  have  hrouj^ht  into  the  market  superior  specimens  of 


YiG,  -jg.  —  Caucasian  Spruce.     Picea  orientalis  Carr. 

intense  blue  color,  as  Kosteriana  (75(1)  and  Parryana  glauca  (75h), 
which  are  secured  by  grafting  on  P.  excelsu  stock.  These  prove  not  only 
more  generally  but  more  persistently  blue,  and  superior  from  this  iK)mt 
of  view  to  the  original  lyjje.  In  dry  situations  the  tree  becomes  with 
age  positively  ugly,  with  a  straggling,  uneven  branch  development, 


g      I 


'J'i 


244        Trees  for  Shade  and  Ornament 

with  very  dark,  almost  black  foliage,  only  the  last  year's  shoot  showing 
The  blue  color.    It  should  be  used  sparingly,  to  light  up  dark  comers. 

and  singly  on  small  lawns. 

Of  other  exotics  adapted  to  our  climate,  there  are  worthy  of  note  - 


Fig.  80.  -  Japanese  Spruce.     Picea  polita  Carr. 

P.  orientalis  Carr.  (75).  f-m  the  Caucasus,  the  '"-t  graceful  a^^^^ 
distinguished  of  all  spruces,  with  its  short,  ^^^^^^ed  ^'«^^y  ^P^^X 
V  .^  lark,  glossy  foliage,  similar  to  the  Norway,  -^h  somewhat  Pendu 
5  J  branrhlcts;  the  branches  persisting  to  the  ground  f«^  ^  «"§  ^'•^^; 
Being  of  slow  growth  and  a  medium-sized  tree,  U  is  well  adapted  for 
small  places.    Very  hardy.  ^^_ 

P.  polita  Carr.  (76),  from  Japan,  is  almost  the  opposite  of  P.  onm 


Yews 


245 


talis  in  the  stoutness  of  its  branches  and  the  rigid  bristling,  spreading 
foliage,  picturesque  rather  than  ornamental.    It  is  also  very  hardy. 

YEWS 

Taxus.    This  genus  of  small  trees  and  shrubs,  six  species  and  many 
forms,  furnishes  some  of  the  hardiest  and  most  frugal  conifers,  well 


Fig.  81  —  English  Yew.     Taxus  haccata  Linn. 

adapted  for  und*erplanting,  as  they  bear  shade  well,  indeed  prefer  shady 
positions,  and  grow  very  slowly,  also  wlicrever  low  forms  are  desired, 
and  for  hedge .  Their  rich,  dark,  glossy  foliage,  with  a  yellowish  cast 
on  the  u.uJer  side,  give  them  somewhat  of  a  funereal  tone,  which  is 
incaased  by  the  remembrance  of  their  frequent  use  in  cemeteries,  to 
which  they  lend  themselves  on  account  of  their  very  slow  growth  and 
their  small,  compact  form,  especially  in  the  fastigiate  forms.  They  are 
ven'  useful  in  formal  gardening  and  against  formal  architectural  work. 
The  red  berries  add  to  their  attractiveness.  They  are  usually  planted 
as  shrubs  and  in  the  many  varieties  of  nurserymen's  forms. 


246         Trees  for  Shade  and  Ornament 

T.  baccala  Linn.  (77),  Enf^lish  Yew,  is  with  us  merely  a  shrub  and 
not  hardy;  especially  when  planted  in  the  open  it  is  apt  to  suffer  from 
frost. 


Fig.  82.  —Cephaloiaxus  Fortunei  Hook. 

T.  cuspidala  S.  &  Z.  (78I,  from  Japan,  is  much  hardier,  without 
any  special  difference  in  as!)cct. 

No  more  satisfactory  low,  shrubby  cover  of  ground  and  beneath 
shady  trees  could  be  suggested  than  the  hardiest  of  all — 


Acacias  and  False  Acacias 


247 


T  Canadensis  Marsh.  (79),  a  prostrate  shrub  of  our  r^orthem  w.kkU, 
which  grows  to  a  U-autiful  specimen  when  .leveloped  in  nursery  rows 

Torreya    T.  Cali/ornica  Torr.  (80),  the  Cali/ornm  Nutmeg  Tree,  and 
T  Uxxifolia  Arnott  (8,),  from    lorida.  are  two  small  trees  of  the  yew 
tvpe    neither  of  them   hardy  .n  northern  climates;   with  mterestmg 
svL-pcMHted  foliage,  and  o^x^n,  stately  form.    They  are  mscct-  and 
lun^ufproof.    The  Japanese  T.  uucifera  S.   &  Z.  (8.)  is  probably 

hardier  than  the  native  ones.  ,         „  j    u    k 

Cephalotaxus,  a  Kcnus  with  several  species  of  small  trees  and  shrubs 

from  Japan  and  China,  is  mamly  ft  for  southern  planting,  but  possibly 

hardv  a.:  far  north  as  Phila.lelphia.    The  best,  C.  Fortune^  Hook  (83). 

is  of' highly  ornamental  asi>ect  an.l  more  graceful  habit  than  the  true 

yews,  its  sharp-pointed  foliage  being  of  livelier  color. 

Podocarpus,  a  genus  with  more  than  fortx  species  of  small  trees,  of 

tropical  and  sub-tropical  mountainous  range,  is  fit  only  for  southern 

planting,  although  P.  alpina  (84),  the  hardiest,  may  be  grown  as  far 

north  as  Philadelphia. 

B.    BROAD-LEAF   TREES 

The  ornamental  value  of  the  broad-leaf  trees  is  to  be 
sought  mainly  in  the  variety  of  foliage,  growth  habit,  and 
form  The  changeableness  of  color  in  the  fohage,  the  vari- 
ety of  tints  in  the  fall,  and  again  in  early  spring  uix)n  the 
reawakening  of  Nature,  and  the  variety  of  branch  systems 
in  their  naked  winter  condition  furnish  unending  attraction, 
both  in  the  single  tree,  aUowed  to  grow  in  perfect  form,  and 
in  the  properlv  grouped  clump.  A  number,  especially  of 
the  low  trees,  arc  also  attractive  by  their  flowers,  which 
in  most  of  the  tall  ones  form  only  a  very  passing  interest. 


BROAD-LEAF     TREES    WITH     COMPOUND 
ACACIAS  and  FALSE  ACACIAS   (Locusts) 


LEAVES 


We  may  consider  together  under  these  names  four  genera  of  the 
Pulse    family,— Acacia,   Albizzia,  Robinia,  GledUschia-y.nh    some 


248         Trees  for  Shade  and  Ornnment 

four  to  fivf  hundred  species,  varieties,  and  hybri<is.  medium  sized  to 
(mostly)  small  trees  and  shrubs,  which  besides  their  pod-like  fruit, 
have  also  similar,  small  leaflets,  forming  a  graceful  foliage,  generally 
beset  with  thorns  or  spines.  Some  have  striking  flowers,  which  form 
an  additional  ornament.  They  are  adaptive  to  poor  soils,  and  are 
very  light-needing. 

Robinia.  Three  native  species  have  their  valuable  points  :  R. 
pseiidiuacid  Linn.  (85),  Black  Locust  <m  New  Kngland  called  fJoney 
Locust),  the  best  known;  a  small  to  medium-sized  tree,  is  hardy 
everywhere.  It  is  most  interesting  and  beautiful  when  in  flower,  with 
large,  pendent,  fragrant,  white  clusters  (May,  June),  set  off  by  the 
yeliowi  .h-green  to  dark  green  foliage.  In  winter  the  unattractive  |k).1s 
persist,  and  the  straggling  branch  system,  with  rough,  ridgy  bark  on 
the  old  trees,  and  shon  prickles  on  the  smm)th  bark  of  the  branches, 
detracts  from  its  looks.  It  excels  in  its  rapidity  of  growth,  the  ease  of 
transplanting,  and  adaptation  to  almost  any  soil,  even  t!ie  poorest  and 
driest;  but  it  is  variable  in  outline  according  to  the  site,  from  the  hand- 
some, roundish  or  elliptical  form  and  upright  habit  on  cool,  rich  loam 
and  not  too  poor  sand  (under  such  conditions  making  a  fine  lawn 
tree),  to  the  ugly,  straggling,  and  unsatisfactory  form  on  compact  clay 
soil,  especially  in  old  age,  when  branches  here  and  there  Ix-gin  to  die. 
To  be  used  mainly  for  grouping  by  themselves  on  knolls  and  t<j  cover 
sandy  or  gravelly  wastes;  singly,  near  houses,  and  on  small  grounds  for 
cheap,  rough  hedges.  Unfortunately,  a  borer  working  in  the  lower 
trunk  disfigures,  although  rarely  kills,  the  tree;  a  leaf  fungus  not  infre- 
quently attacks  it,  and  it  has  the  bad  habit  of  suckering  from  the 
shallow  roots,  liasily  propagated  by  cuttings.  It  grows  very  rapidly, 
but  not  persistently,  and  makes  a  hard,  durable  wood,  fit  for  fence 

posts,  etc. 

A  variety,  inermis  (86),  without  thorns,  has  usually  a  darker  hued 

foliage. 

R.  viscosa  Vent.  (87),  Clammy  Locust,  so  called  from  its  sticky  branch- 
lets  and  leaf  stems,  smaller  than  the  former  (ten  to  fifteen  feet  down 
to  a  shrub),  is  similar  to  the  preceding  species,  but  with  larger  clusters 
of  rose-pink  flowers,  appearing  later  and  continuing  longer. 

R.  hispida  Linn.  (88),  Rose  Acacia,  appearing  more  often  as  a  low 
shrub  than  a  tree;  from  the  southern  Alleghanies;  a  very  desirable  or- 
nament and  the  hardiest  of  all;  large  rose-colored  flowers  appear  very 
early  in  life  (June  and  July);  more  prickly  than  the  other  varieties;  has 


Acacias  and  False  Acacias 


249 


the  same  habit  of  suckerinf?  as  the  others,  hence  to  be  used  where  this 
is  not  an  objection.    Good  for  seaside  planting  on  sandy  wastes. 

A  very  large  nuniberof  nurserymen's  varitlies,  with  small  variatidn"!, 
especially  of  the  black  locust,  have  their  usos 

GledltKhia.  G.lriacanthos  Linn.  (89),  Honty  Locus!  (xe  Ribinia).  or 
Threethomed  Acacia,  the  first  name  from  the  swt-tl  yllnv  iiu!|i  of  'he 
pods;  the  second  from  the  long-three-pronged  spines  wliidi  In  s,  i  irunk 
and  branches;  i  nedium-sizcd  tree,  one  of  ten  species  of  more  south- 
em  distribution,  yet  very  hardy.  Very  different  from  the  foregoing  in 
outline,  sprea.  ng  in  branch  habit  and  oftr  i.-'^ular,  with  inconspicu- 
ous green  flowt  and  very  large  broad  ■  .vr;  , .  ds  which,  together 
with  the  St  'Ut  spmes,  make  it  an  object  '  n'ci.sl  iv  it:  leafless  condi- 
tion, but  al-o  add  to  its  uncleanliness,  sinu  'i .  ,rui'  fa<'.  little  by  little 
for  some  time.  Its  foliage,  light  green  \u  •  ■  •  to  .Irt-.r  yellow,  with 
rather  shorter  leaf  period,  differs  also  vei^  /uu^.;  i'--.,;!!  the  former;  it 
is  elegant  in  detail  delicate  and  open,  giving  it  an  even  airier  aspect 
than  that  of  the  black  locust.  It  has  none  of  the  bad  habits  of  the 
latter,  is  free  from  insects,  and  adaptive  to  all  soils  from  dry  to  wet. 
Light-needing  and  a  rapid  grower. 

The  variety,  inermis  (90)  without  spines,  has  a  somewhat  more 
slen  ler  and  loose  habit. 

Of  the  true  acacia  ^  there  are  several  hundred  species,  found  chiefly 
in  Australia,  in  tropical,  sub-tropical,  and  desert  ranges,  generally  as 
small  trees  or  shrubs  with  verv  small,  graceful,  feathery  foliage,  and 
finely  colored,  fragrant  flow.  rs.  The  following  species  is  especially  use- 
ful for  southern  planting: 

Acacui.  A.decurrens,  Willd.  (gi).  Black  Wattle,  from  Australia,  with 
profuse,  fern-like  leaves,  with  h  njr  racem.  s  of  bright  yellow  flowers. 

A.  pubescens  R.  Br.  (92),  the  Hairy  Wattle,  a  small  spreading  tree 
or  shrub,  is  a  very  fine  ornament  with  its  gracefully  cut  foliage  and 
abundance  of  fragrant  light  yellow  flowers,  on  pendent  branchlets, 
appearing  very  early  in  spring.  It  has  been  found  hardy  as  far  north 
as  Boston. 

AlbizziA  (Acacia).  A.  Julibrissin  Durazz.  (93),  from  Persia,  is  a 
specially  beautiful,  spineless,  small  tree,  the  most  ornamental  of  its 
group  and  much  planted ;  with  exquisite  feathery,  pinkish  flowers  in 
panicles  (July)  and  mnst  graceful  foliage;  spreading  and  round-headed 
in  outline.  Only  half  hardy  at  Philadelphia;  needs  rich  and  warm 
situations. 


250 


Trees  for  Shade  and  Ornament 

HORSE  CHESTNUTS  OR   BUCKEYES 


JE9CU1U8.  Large,  medium-sized  and  small  trees  and  shrubs  from  the 
Unted  States  and  Asia,  of  well -appreciated  ornamental  value.  w.Ui 
S,  palmate  foliage  and  attractive  flowers  They  are  excellent  shade 
Tree     R'quiring,  however,  rich  soil  for  the.r  best  developmen  . 

A   mppocasianum  Linn.  (95),  //--  Chestnut,  from  Chma,  nearly 
hardy  to  Ottawa,  is  the  l^est  known,  the  largest  of  the  genus,  and  one 
'rthe  l,est  shade  trees.     It  is  a  tolerably  rapid  grower  of  -ther  round- 
ish o  oval  outline,  reguUr,  somewhat  coarse,  at  f^rst  st.ff,  branch  hab.t; 
branches  iK-coming  jK-ndent  with  the  tips  of  branches  peculiar  y  curved 
upwani    .ith  heav  ,  luxuriant,  deep  green,  flaccid  fohage,  becommg 
golden    ,ron.ed  in  autumn,  leafing  early,  but  als..  orown.ng  and  shed- 
d^g  its  foliage  early  (August).     A  profusion  of  .st.fT  pyram.ds  of  whue, 
shoty  flowers  (May)  is  a  striking  feature,  but  also  adds  to  Us  unclean- 
ines.   which  is  most  felt  when  the  large  nuts  and  burs  fall  m  early 
autumn      A  "shot  hole"  fungus  sometimes  attacks  the  leaves  makmg 
?h  m  unsightly  with  brown  specks;  it  is  also  liable  to  sun-sea  d,  but  ts 
othen^ise  free  from  troubles.    For  wide  avenues  and  public  places  .t  is 
one  of  the  best  species;  also  good  for  lawns  singly,  being  too  formal 

in  habit  to  group  well.  .      .    .1 

A  PaviaUnn.  (oO  iruhm\  Red  Buckeye,  a  small  tree  nativ^  in  the 
South  but  hardy  northward,  is  commendable  for  its  fine  brick-red  to 
dark  red  flowers.  There  are  several  forms,  var>'ing  in  color  of  flowers, 
and  a  dwarf  witii  iK-ndulous  branches. 

A  dabra  Willd.  (96),  Ohio  Buckeye  and  A.  odandra  {flava)  Marsh. 
(07^  ■  Sweet  Buckeye,  natives  of  the  Southern  States,  deser^•e  much  more 
attention  than  thev  have  so  far  received.  They  are  smail  to  medium- 
sized  trees,  lacking  the  showy  flowers  of  the  first  two  mentioned,  having 
pale  yellowish-grcrn  ones,  but  a  more  elegant  foliage  and  smaller 
fruit  with  less  coarse  burs,  beir.g  therefore  more  cleanly.  Hardy  to 
Ottawa,  and  there  hanlier  than  the  horse  chestnut. 

A  pan-iflora  Walt.  (98)  [macroslachya),  Dwarf  Horse  Chesmt 
A  native  of  the  Southern  States,  a  large  shrub  (fifteen  to  twenty  feet), 
sometimes  growing  into  tree  for  ^  with  a  broad  well-rounded  head^.s 
a  most  desirable  plant  in  its  proper  place,  in  the  North  hardy  to  semi^ 
hardy  in  shekere  i  tx^sitions.  It  is  aUracti.e  in  its  dark,  smooth,  rich 
foliage  and  peculiar  long  erect  spikes  ..f  white  flowers,  appeanng 
during  the  .canty  flower  season  (July).     It  suckers  readily,  spreadip.; 


(CrFKtHV 


Horse  Chestnuts  or  Buckeyes  251 


Fig  83. —Tree  of  Heaven.     Ailanthus  glandulosus  Desf. 

rapidly,  and  hence  to  be  planted  onlv  where  this  habit  is  not  objec- 
tionable, or  even  desirable.     It  is  adapted  to  stifl  soils. 

Ailanthus.  A.  glandulosus  Dcsf.  (qq),  Tree  of  Heaven.     A  large  tree 
from  China,  but  so  generally  planted  as  to  appear  like  a  native.    It  is 


252        Trees  for  Shade  and  Ornament 

highly  interesting  and  ornamental,  its  large  fronds  of  pinnate  leaves  giv- 
ing it  a  strikingly  graceful  and  tropical  appearance,  wh.ch  .s  heightened 
by  the  very  large,  singular  bunches  of  flowers  and  fruit.    In  winter 
its  stoui,  rusty  brown  young  twigs  and  shoots  give  it  an  interest.    Not 
hardy  in  Ottawa.    In  form  it  is  somewhat  open,  but  when  full  grown 
is  uf  stately  habit,  and  peculiarly  fissured,  somewhat  smooth,  gray 
bark     It  is  an  extremely  rapid  grower,  and  most  adaptive  to  so.  and 
dimate,  but  light-needing.    It  has  the  advantage  of  be'"?  ^^sohitely 
,ree  from  insects  or  other  troubles,  bui  has  two  objectionable  features 
namely,  the  disagreeable  smell  of  the  flowers  of  the  male  tree  which 
may  be  avoided  by  planting  female  trees  (recognizable?);  and  the  hab  t 
of  suckering  and  strong  rooting  at  the  surface  (also  more  strongly  deveU 
oped  in  the  male  tree),  which  makes  it  undesirable  near  dwellings  and 
pavements.     It  is  therefore  to  be  used  with  discretion.    For  rapid, 
tall  shrub  effect  or  top  filling  it  may  be  used  advanUgeously  by  cutting 
back  annually,  as  it  is  a  most  vigorous  sprouter. 

Aralia.    A.  spinosa  Linn.  (lOo),  Angdka  Tree,  Hercules  Club,  one  of 
some  twenty-five  or  thirty  species,  is  a  shrub  or  dwarf  tree  (twelve  to 
sixteen  feet),  of  southern  native  habitat,  and  not  quite  hardy  in  the  North^ 
With  its  stem  beset  with  sharp  prickles,  shedding  both  leaves  and 
branches  in  winter,  and  leaving  a  bare  pole,  it  is  a  botanical  cunosity, 
but  also  very  ornamental  with  its  tufts  of  very  large  tw.cp-  and  thnce- 
pinnatc  leaves  at  the  tip  of  stem  and  branches,  and  with  its  wealth  of 
large  clusters  of  fleecy,  white  to  greenish-tinted  flowers  in  sun^mer,  being 
quite  tropical  in  appearance.    It  is  a  rapid  grower  hence,  like  the  A.lan- 
Ls,  giving  quick  effects  as  tall  shrub  and  top  filler.     It  is  very  shade- 
endurhig  and  adaptive  to  various  soils,  best  in  moist,  even  wet  ones 
suckers  profusely  and  hence  can  be  cut  down  for  wmtenng,  but  this 
habit,  if  not  to  be  utilized,  can  easily  be  kept  in  check.     It  is  liable  to 

attacks  of  scale.  ,     .      u  .    ,<  ^u^ 

Most  of  the  other  species  are  tender  herbs  or  shrubs,  but  Aralia 
Chmensis  Linn.  (Fatsia  Japonica,  or  Sieboldii  or Dimorphanlhus  Mand- 
schuricusu  from  Japan  and  China,  a  very  elegant  shrub,  -th  findy; 
rut  deep  glossy  foliage,  is  perfectly  hardy  as  far  north  as  Ottawa, 
hence  it  should  be  used  in  preference  to  the  native  form. 

Caragana.  C.  arborescens  Lam.  do-,  Mberian  Pea  Tree.  This  small 
tree  (fifteen  to  iwenty  feel)  or  large  shrub,  one  of  several  interestmg 


SIS^'WP 


Ash 


253 


species,  with  compound  leaves  (ciKht  to  ten  leaflets)  and  pea-shaped 
pale  yellow  flowers,  is  hardy  ever>'where,  easily  grown  and  adaptive, 
and  makes  one  of  the  best  sturdy  hedges. 

C.spinosa  D  C.  (103),  also  from  Siberia,  similar  in  leaf  and  flower, 
is  a  low  shrub  (four  to  six  feet)  with  long,  thorny  branches,  but  does 
not  appear  to  make  giKxl  hedges.     It  is  specially  adapted  for  sandy  soils. 

An  entirely  dilTcrent  i\'\ye  as  regards  foliage,  having  only  two  to 
four  leaflets,  is  rei)rescnted  by-  - 

C.Jrulesccns  D  C.  (103  bis),  from  Southern  Russia  and  China,  hardy 
to  Ottawa.  This  is  a  small  tree,  half  the  size  of  arborescens,  and  more 
graceful  and  attractive,  with  its  golden -yellow  inch-long  flowers. 

Several  other  Asiatic  dwarfs  of  this  genus  are  found  equally  hardy 
but  without  points  of  sui)criority,  except  perhaps  C.  py^ma-a  D  C,  a 
small  shrub  with  fine  foliage  and  handsome  golden-yellow  flowers. 

Cladrastis.  C.  tinctorla  Raf.  (104)  (Virgilea  lulea),  Y'dlow-Wood. 
This  small  to  medium.-sized  tree,  often  even  shrub-like  in  habit,  of 
limited  range  in  Kentucky  and  Tennessee,  but  hardy  to  semi-hardy  into 
Canada,  is  a  first-class  ornament  for  small  places,  with  short  trunk  and 
spreading  branch  habit  in  refined  cur\cs.  The  foliage  is  made  up  of 
rather  large  com^mund  leaves,  formed  of  small,  short,  pale  green  leaflets 
(iroo[)ing  gracefully  and  turning  bright  yellow;  it  has  equally  graceful 
loose  clusters  of  fragrant  white,  pea-shaped,  wistaria-like  flowers  (June), 
hanging  from  the  ends  of  the  little  branchlets.  The  long  leaf-stalks,  re- 
maining into  winter  and  enclosing  the  buds,  are  interesting,  but  some- 
what detractive  from  its  winter  aspect,  which  othenvise  its  smooth,  gray, 
beech-like  bark  renders  attractive.  It  is  a  moderately  rapid  grower, 
and  adaptive  to  various  soils. 


ASH 

Fraxinus.  A  genus  economically  verv*  valuable,  with  thirty  to  forty 
species  of  large  to  small  trees,  in  all  parts  of  the  temperate  zone;  is  orna- 
mentally of  less  value  than  many  others,  because  of  the  stiff,  ojien,  bare, 
and  sp-eading  branch  habit.  Vet  they  arc  interesting  in  their  finely- 
ridged,  whitish-gray  to  dark  bark,  and  their  elegant  foliage  of  light  hue, 
which,  however,  is  late  in  making  its  appearance,  and  early  in  falling. 
.■\11  arc  liglu-needing  and  of  medium  rale  of  growth.  Their  tracing 
r(K)t   .-system   j)ermits  easy  transplanting.     They  are  adaptive  t<,  wet 


254        Trees  for  Shade  and  Ornament 

and  compacted  soils,  but  thrive  best  in  drier  situations.    Their  free- 
dom from  insect  pests  would  recommend  them  for  street  trees,  but  their 


Fig.  84.  —  English  Ash.     Fraxinus  excelsior  Linn. 

short  leaf  pc-riod  and  their  rcquirenu-nt  of  k-hkI  soil  rule  them  out  here. 
Their  lK-,.t  u.se  is  for  color  etTcrt  a^ain..l  darkcT  foliaRC,  along  country 
roadsides,  and  for  marking  a  jniint  in  the  ian.!..iaiK>. 


Ash 


255 


Of  the  eight  American  species,  several  resemble  each  other  so  closely 
that  a  distinction  is  ditV.cult,  even  to  nurser>-men,  and  practically,  e.. 
cept  as  to  size,  unnecessarv'  from  the  ornamental  point  of  view.    The 
two  most  distinct  species  are: 


Pig.  85.  —  Flowering  Ash.     Fraxinus  Ornus  Linn. 

F.  Americana  Linn.  (105),  While  Ash,  of  eastern  distribution  from 
north  to  south,the  largest, most  typical  of  the  genus,and  the  U-st  in  form. 

F  nigra  Marsh.  (106)  (sambuci/olia),  Black  Ash,  a  rather  rare  tree 
of  the  s'vamp,  with  a  darker,  denser  foliage  of  slen.lerer  leaves,  and  a 
dark  gloomy  asjiect  of  stem  and  branches. 

F  lanceoiata  Borck.  (107)  {viridis).  Green  Ash,  of  more  western 
distribution,  a  smaller  tree,  is  often  mistaken  for  white  ash  and  mixed 
with  it  in  nurseries. 


f 


256        Trees  for  Shade  and  Ornament 

F.  quadranRulata  Michx.  (108),  Blue  Ash,  is  adaptive  to  drier  situa- 
tions than  the  other  species. 

Of  European  slacks  there  are  two  quite  distinctive  ones,  both  more 
ornamental  in  their  greenery-  than  the  American  (but  not  qu.te  hardy 

''  T^lsior  Linn.  (.09),  the  so-called  1-n^ish  Asl^,  a  native  of 
Europe  with  various  varieties,  is  quite  attractive,  with  its  finer,  small, 
^r^t?  foliage  and  black  buds.     It  is  liable  to  a  black  knot  fungus 

'^"rOr««5  Linn,  (no),  FUnt'ering  Ash,  a  small  tree  from  the  Mediter- 
ranean countries,  with  round  head,  •""- ^^"■"f'^^V^'^^","^  ,',!'"' 
with  its  numerous,  white,  feathery  flowers  (May,  June),  makes  an  attrac- 
tive tree  for  small  places  and  in  front  of  groups. 

Gymnocladus.  G.  Canadensis  Lam.  (in),  Kentucky  Coffee  Treeh  a 
large  tree  of  southern  distribution,  but  hardy  as  far  as  Ottawa.  W.th 
large,  verv  luxuriant,  and  striking,  tropical-Unjking  foliage  similar  to 
the  ^ilanthus,  finelv-fissured  bark,  but  ragged,  stout,  somewhat  crcx^ked 
and  straggling  branch  >vstem,  it  is  picturesque  and  interest^mg  rather 
Jhan  beautiful,  with  heavy  seed  bu.ls  and  apparently  budless,  bare 
branches.  It  is  well  adapted  for  suburi.an  street  tree-planting,  but 
requires  deep,  rich  soil.     It  is  sj)ecially  free  from  pests. 

HICKORIES 

Hicoria  (Carva).  There  are  nine  siK^cies  of  large  and  small  trees, 
all  confined  to  Eastern  United  States.  Most  of  them  are  of  great  eco- 
nomical value  and  some  (,K-can  and  shellbark)  more  prized  for  their 
fruit  than  for  ornamental  an.l  shade  ,,ur,K,ses;  yet  the  lofty,  symmet- 
rical, closelv-knit.  rather  elegant,  as,.iring  form  of  the  large  species, 
the  rather  p^le,  medium  to  small  size.l  c.,m,K,un<l  leaves,  turning  golden 
yellow,  the  picturesque,  somewhat  gnarled,  pendulous  branch  system, 
render  them  worth  while  for  planters  u„  larg.-  grounds,  singly  m  pas- 
tures or  in  groves  ^^hh  other  trees.  Having  a  very  .leep  r.H.t  system 
,hev  nee.l  <lee,,  and  preferably  rich  >oil.  They  are  free  from  insects 
but'  sulTer.  although  rarely,  fn.m  the  leaf  s,K.t  fungus.  Ihey  are  best 
used  in  single  individuals,  near  houses,  in  f.el.ls,  and  to  accentu^e  an 

elevation. 

The  best  si)ecies  for  ornamental  us;'  is  perhap>:   - 


'mmr 


W 


Walnut 


257 


H  minima  Britt.  (112)  {amara),  Bitternut,  native  m  Canada, 
which  is  of  very  upright  habit  and  elegant  foliage,  with  close,  finely- 
fissured  bark.    It  is  adaptive  to  swampy  conditions. 

H  Pecan  Britt.  (113)  {oUvcBformis),  of  more  southern  distribution, 
is  similar  to  the  fo..Tier,  but  still  loftier.    It  is  hardy  as  far  north  as 

^  H  Zta  Britt.  (114).  Shdlhark,  hardy  in  the  North  and  also  suitable 
for  southern  planting.  H.  laciniosa  Sarg.  (115)  {sulcata)  Shaghark, 
named  from  its  flaky  bark,  often  developing  a  narrow  elliptical  form 
with  pendulous  branches,  is  most  valuable  for  its  fruit. 

H   alba  Britt.  (116)  {tomentosa),  Mockernut,  thrives  m  the  poor- 

est  soils.  ,,  .  ,  11 

H  myristiccBformis  (117),  Nutmeg  Hickory,  a  small  tree,  with  small, 
elegant,  deep  green  foliage,  golden-yellow  underneath  when  grown  in 
rich  soil,  deserves  attention,  especially  for  small  places.  It  is,  how- 
ever, of  southern  range,  hence  its  hardiness  is  doubtful. 


'  .( 


WALNUT 

Juglans  Of  the  ten  species  of  large,  medium,  and  small  trees 
three  or  four  deserve  attention,  although  none  of  them  is  of  very  high 
ornamental  value,  both  foliage  and  branch  system  being  rather  coarse, 
and  outlines  irregular.  Their  leaf  period  is  especially  short.  Havmg 
tap-roots,  they  are  rather  difficult  to  transplant,  and  need  a  deep,  rich 
Jl  for  good  development.    They  aave  the  advantage  of  being  free 

from  insects.  .  . 

The    largest    and    handsomest     of     this    group    is    the    native 

species  —  ^ 

/  nigra  Linn.  (118).  Black  Walnut,  hardy  as  far  as  Ottawa,  a  very 
large  tree,  growing  rapidly,  of  spreading  habit,  and  varying  outline, 
with  blackish,  strongly  fissured  bark  and  dark  green,  large,  r.ih.r  dig- 
nified foliage;  with  a  short  leaf  period  at  both  ends,  and  no  !n..re.,iing 
autumn  colors.  It  is  an  unneighboriy  tree,  being  very  greedy  and 
shady,  its  coarse  foliage  decaying  slowly,  as  well  as  being  rather  un- 
clean. It  is  fit  only  for  wide  spaces,  singly  or  in  groups,  wnen  the  shade 
and  light  effects  in  its  foliage  are  pleasing,  and  its  sturdy  growth,  bold 
ramifications   and  noble  statelincss  are  effective. 

J  cinerea  Linn.  (119).  Butternut  or  White  Walnut.     A  smaller  tree 
(up  to  one  hundred  feet),  of  more  northern  range  and  less  choice  of 


258        Trees  for  Shade  and  Ornament 


i^^\' 

',;%. 


a  i 


i 


Pjq  gfi.  _  \-arnish  tree.     Koelreuteria  paniculata  Maxim. 

soils,  but  inferior  to  the  former  in  its  more  straK^'iing  habit  and  uncer- 
tain outhne,  sparser,  coarser  foliage,  with  still  shorter  leaf  ix.-riod.  It 
i;i  light-cuhireU  in  bark  and  foliage.     It  i;,  raid  U)  group  well  with  the 


mm 


wm 


Walnut 


259 


Austrian  or  Scotch  pine,  and  makes  a  natural  appearance  on  rock) 
ground,  if  the  soil  is  rich  enough. 


FiG.  87.  —  Go!''en  Chain.     Laburnum  vulgare  Griseh. 


J.  rupeslris  wic),  the  California  specif  s,  a  :  lender,  small  tree  of  more 
upright  hnbil,  otherwise  resembling  the  bla.k  walnui,  wouiu  probabi) 
make  a   'ood  ornamental  tree  in  Southern  States. 


1-5 


1^ 


26o        Trees  for  Shade  and  Ornament 


/.  regia  Linn.  (121),  called  Enj^Ush  Walnut,  but  a  native  of  Persia,  a 
small  tree  of  roundish  outline,  flattening  its  crown  with  old  age,  has 
little  attraction  outside  of  its  fruit,  unless  its  glossy,  light  green  foliage, 


Fig.  88.  —  Chinaberry  or  Umbrella  Tree.     Melia  Azedarach  Linn. 

smooth,  gray  stem,  and  purplish  branches  are  needed  for  contrast. 
Probably  not  hardy  north  of  New  York. 

An  interesting  cross  tree  of  rupestris  and  regia  has  been  produced 
by  Luther  Burbank,  which  excels  in  rapidity  of  growth. 


Sumach 


261 


J  Sieboldiana  Maxim.  (121  bis),  from  Japan,  a  small  broad-crowned 
tree'  is  from  the  ornamental  point  the  Ust.  and  in  addU.on  excels  m 
hardiness,  U-ing  perfectly  at  home  in  Ottawa. 

Kodreuterla.  K.  paniculata  Maxim  (122),  Varnish  Tree,  is  a  well-de- 
serving small  tree  with  broad  rounded  outline  from  China  and  Japn 
half  hardy  to  Massachusetts  and  into  Canada.    The  somewhat  st.lT. 
oJ.n      regular,  but  picturesc.ue  branch  habit  is  relieved  by  a  rather 
hfa";  foliage  of  elegantly  cut,  compound  leaves,  dark  green  changing 
tocleep  vdbw,  an.l  by  large  panicles  of  showy,  bnght  yellow,  small 
flowers  (Julv,  -Xugust),  borne  on  the  ends  of  the  slux^ts  g,vmg  U  a  rare 
and  gra    fui  appearance  at  a  time  when  little  else  is  in  blcx^nr..     Pecuhar 
gtn  pods  ofTuit  add  to  its  interest.     It   is  shacie.n.lur.ng,  gives 
a  plea  ant  shade  without  obstmcting  the  view,  and  has  a  long  leaf 
Iriod      It  is  best  suited  to  cool,  deep  soils,  but  .s  also  adaptive  to 
L  soils,  easily  propagated,  but  slow  growing,  and  free  from  insects 
It  is  adapted  to  small  parks  and  small  places,  and  m  the  foreground  of 
groups. 

Laburnum.  L.  rmlgare  Griseb.  (123)  (Cytisus),  Galden  Chain  Labur- 
num One  of  the  most  ornamental  small  trees,  often  shrub-hke,  from 
Europe;  with  a  slender  upright  habit  forming  an  irregular,  picturesque 
head,  with  slender-stemmed,  smooth,  shining  leaves  and  long,  pendent 
racemes  of  yellow  to  purplish  "Golden  Chain"  flowers  (April  to  June). 
Grows  in  any  soil  not  wet.  Does  not  respond  to  pruning.  Adaptive 
to  small  lawns  and  foregrounds  or  borders  of  groups. 

Melia.  M.  Azedarach  Linn.  (124),  Chinuberry,  Umbrella  Tree,  is  a 
small  tree  from  India  and  Persia,  for  southern  planting  only;  here  long 
estublishod  and  running  wild.  It  is  one  of  the  bc-st  shade  trees  with  a 
very  dense,  r.mnded  crown,  and  a  very  long  leaf  period,  ornamental  in  its 
bright  green,  doublv  pinnate  foliage,  and  numerous  lilac-colored  flowers 
(April),  followed  by  yellowish  berries.  It  is  adapted  only  for  use  as 
single,  small  ornamental  or  shade  trees. 


il 


11 
J- 


SUMACH 

Rhus     Of  the  one  hundred  or  more  species  of  trees,  shrubs   and 
vines,  among  which  are  several  poisonous  ones,  three  native  and  two 


MICROCOPY   RESOLUTION  TEST  CHART 

(ANSI  and  ISO  TEST  CHART  No.  2) 


|^|Z8      |Z5 
■^  ■-■     12.2 


lit 

IS 


13.6 


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^    /APPLIED  IIVMGE 


16SJ  East  Main  Street 

Rochester,  N«i>  Yort(        H609       USA 

(7t6)   482  -  OJOO  -  Phone 

(716)   2M-5»e9-Fo« 


262        Trees  for  Shade  and  Ornament 


foreign  species,  each  entirely  different  from  the  other,  lend  themselves 
to  ornamental  use  on  account  of  flower  and  fruit  as  well  as  of  foliage, 
which  is  especially  beautiful  in  autumn  coloring.  Most  adaptive  to 
sterile  soils,  and  free  from  troubles,  they  are  among  the  most  satisfac- 
tory ornaments,  as  small  trees,  or  shrubs  in  masses. 

R.  hirta  (L.)  Ludw.  (125)  (typhina),  Staghorn  Sumach,  so  called  from 
its  stiff,  prong-like,  rathfer  open  and  coarse  branch  system,  the  young 
shoots  being  velvety,  is  a  small  tree,  with  a  compound  leaf  resembling  but 
more  graceful  than  the  Ailanthus,  turning  brilliant  scarlet  and  crimson 
in  the  autumn;  with  an  early,  striking,  erect  fruit  stand  of  scariet  ber- 
ries holding  on  through  the  winter  and  becoming  velvety  purple.  It 
suckers  badly.  It  is  rustic  in  its  aspect  with  its  open  unsymmetricul 
branch  system.  It  is  adapted  to  grouping  in  small  shrubbery  and  for 
neglected,  rough,  stony  comers,  for  which  it  and  its  congeners  are  spe- 
cially fitted.  It  is  best  used  in  groups  with  other  shrubs  to  hide  its 
poor  form,  and  set  ofi  its  elegant  foliage. 

R.  copdllim,  Linri.  (126),  Dwarf  Sumach,  native  from  New  Eng- 
land south,  is  also  a  small  tree,  but  often  shrub-like,  with  more  compact 
form  and  with  glossier  dark  green  foliage  than  the  preceding,  pale  to 
white  beneath,  turning  rich  maroon,  although  otherwise  similar  to  the 
former.  It  is  adaptive  to  most  sterile  soils.  It  often  remains  not  over 
a  foot  high,  spreads  freely  by  root  suckers,  and  hence  is  useful  for  quickly 
covering  rocky  and  barren  spots  and  sand  banks. 

R.  Cotinus,  Linn.  (127),  Smoke  Tree  {Venetian  Sumach),  Mist  Tree, 
Purple  Fringe,  so  called  from  its  peculiar  misty-looking  inflorescence, 
a  dwarf  tree  (up  to  eight  feet),  from  the  Caucasus,  but  hardy  to  Ottawa. 
It  is  a  peculiariy  pleasing  object  in  a  small  lawn,  with  its  formal  round 
head,  bluish-green,  almost  circular  leaves,  turning  rosy  crimson,  with 
very  long  leaf  period  and  unusual,  flesh-colored,  feathery  or  wig-like 
flower  heads.  Hardy  and  adaptive  to  all  soils.  To  be  used  both  singly 
and  in  groups. 

R.  glabra  Linn.  (128),  Smooth  Sumach.  A  small  tree  or  shrub  (three 
to  ten  feet  high)  with  smooth  branches,  of  similar  habit  and  adaptation 
as  the  jjreceding,  and  the  hardiest  of  all,  with  showy  foliage  and  crim- 
son fruit,  retaining  the  latter  long  after  the  foliage  has  fallen.  A  vari- 
ety, laciniata  (128a),  smaller  in  stature,  with  fern-like,  cut  foliage,  is 
still  more  elegant  in  its  crimson  autumn  colors. 

R.semialata  Murr.  (129),  {Osbekii),  Osbeck  Sumach,  is  a  variety 
of  an  Asiatic  species,  semi-hardy,  of  larger  size  (twenty  to  thirty  feet) 


Mountain  Ashes 


263 


than  the  native  species,  and  a  more  rapid  grower.  Dark  green  shining 
foliage  above,  rusty-colored  beneath,  and  its  pure  white  showy  flower 
heads  (July,  August)  are  its  beauty,  the  fruit  and  autumn  colors 
(orange  to  crimson)  being  less  conspicuous. 

Sophora.  5.  Japonica  Linn.  (130),  Pagoda  Tree,  one  of  the  twenty-five 
species  of  trees,  shrubs,  and  herbs,  mostly  of  southern  distribution,  is 
a  pretty,  erect,  round-headed,  small  to  medium-sized  tree  from  Japan; 
only  half  hardy  north  of  New  York  and  Massachusetts.  It  is  tractive 
by  reason  of  its  smooth,  dark  green  bark  for  winter  effects,  and  in  sum- 
mer by  its  graceful,  delicate,  dark  blue-green  foliage,  and  large  pan- 
icles of  cream-white,  pea-shaped,  late  flowers  (August,  September). 
Otherwise,  it  resembles  the  Black  Locust,  and,  like  it,  is  adaptive  to  dry 

soils. 

A  pendulous  variety,  pendida  (130a),  is  one  of  the  best  weeping  trees 

in  existence. 

S.  platycarpa  Maxim.  (131),  also  from  Japan,  with  large  yellow 
flowers,  is  hardier  than  S.  Japonica  and  may  therefore  be  used  farther 

north. 

S.  secundiflora  Lag.  (132),  the  native  Texas  species,  a  small  tree 
or  shrub,  with  finely  scented,  large,  violet-blue  flowers  (June,  July) 
and  glossy  leaves,  is  commendable  only  for  southern  planting. 


m 
m 


W 


\' 


MOUNTAIN    ASHES    (SERVICE   TREE) 

Sorbus  (Pirus).  This  genus  contains  some  thirty  species  and  a 
number  of  varieties  of  small  trees,  mostly  of  northern  range  and  from 
mountain  sites,  hence  very  hardy,  belonging  to  the  apple  tribe  (which 
see  on  page  294).  They  are  among  the  most  pleasing  hardy  orna- 
mentals because  of  their  finely  cut,  ash-like  leaves,  turning  orange-red 
in  autumn,  their  flat  clusters  of  white  or  pink,  compound  flowers  (May, 
J'.me),  and  the  yellow  to  scarlet-red  clusters  of  berry-like  fruit,  which 
bang  on  from  July  throughout  the  winter.  There  is  very  little  differ- 
ence between  the  two  best  known  species: 

5.  Amerkam  Marsh.  (133),  American  Mountain  Ash,  which  pro- 
duces a  greater  abundance  of  fruit,  but  less  brilliant  in  color  than  the 
following,  has  more  tajKr-pointed  leaves  and  is  perhaps  of  smaller 
growth;  and 

S.  aucuparia  Linn.  (134),  Rowan  Tree,  the  European  species.     Both 


i  I 


264         Trees  for  Shade  and  Ornament 

are  small  trees  with  roundish  apple-trce-like  outline  and  open  crown, 
growing  in  any  soil,  and  especially  fit  for  rocky  hillsides,  by  themselves 
as  garden  trees,  or  in  foreground  of  conifers  to  add  picturesquesness. 
They  are  both  free  from  leaf  insects,  but  liable  to  attacks  by  the  apple 
borer.     They  are  easily  transplanted,  but  not  responsive  to  pruning. 

S.  Aria  Crantz.  (135),  While  Beam,  from  P^urope,  is  a  small  tree 
with  conical  outline,  attracti\e  by  its  pleasing  and  distinct  deep  green, 
deeply  cut  foliage  with  downy  white  underside,  which  groups  well 
with  evergreens. 

S.  torminalis  Crantz.  (136),  Wild  Service  Tree,  a  handsome,  small, 
round-headed  tree,  with  spreading  habit,  and  foliage  of  lobed  leaves, 
the  upper  side  dark  or  bright  green,  the  lower  white,  turning  bright 
red,  and  with  orange-red  fruit,  is  noteworthy  for  its  adaptation  to  dry 
and  exposed  sites  and  especially  to  limestone  soils. 


2.  BROAD-LEAF   TREES   WITH    SIMPLE    LEAVES 

MAPLES 

Acer.  A  large  genus,  with  sixty  to  seventy  species  of  large,  medium 
and  small-sized  trees,  and  some  few  shrubs,  which  comprises  the  most 
satisfactory  group  of  ornamental  trees  for  lawn  and  roadside  planting, 
of  wide  range,  adaptive  to  a  variety  of  soils,  and  most  easily  transplanted. 
They  all  have  a  pleasing  diversity  of  variously  cut  foliage,  quite  vari- 
able in  outline  and  color,  mostly  turning  into  brilliant  tints.  The 
majority  are  of  upright  habit.  They  are  shade-enduring  and  as  a  rule 
rapid  growers,  generally  clean  and  liable  to  few  insect  or  other  troubles. 
Most  of  them  are  fine  specimen  trees. 

At  least  five  native  species  have  value  as  ornamental  and  shade 
trees: 

A.  saccharum  ^'arsh  (137)  (saccharinum),  Sugar  Maple,  the  one 
mainly  used  for  sugar  orchards,  and  its  southern  counterpart,  A. 
nigrum  (138),  Black  Maple,  asually  not  recognized  as  different,  are  both 
first-class  shade  and  ornamental  trees,  with  a  most  compact  crown  of 
globular  outline,  rather  stiff,  upright  branch  habit;  the  black  maple 
leafing  out  earlier,  with  darker,  less  deeply  lobed,  generally  larger, 
and  more  fla'-cid  foliage;  both  turning  pale  yellow  in  Mitumn.  They 
are  mode  ^^Ay  rapid  and  persistent  growers,  especially  in  rich  soils, 
and  very  snade-enduring,  adaptive  to  a  variety  of  soils,  but  best  devcl- 


Maples 


265 


oped  in  good  loam.    They  are  preferably  used  as  single  specimens, 
but  makr:  fine  avenues,  if  not  planted  too  close  together. 

Closely  allied,  and  similar  in  all  respects,  is  the  species  of  the  Gulf 

States— 

A.  floridantm  Chapm.  (139),  fit  only  for  southern  planting. 

A.  rubrum  Linn.  (140),  Red  Maple,  of  similar  range  as  the  sugar 
maple,  is  a  most  satisfactory  tree  from  every  point  of  view.  Similar 
in  form  to  the  sugar  maple,  alth'Ugh  perhaps  less  stiff  and  regular  in 
branch  habit,  its  beauty  lies  in  the  darl:  green  foliage,  pale  to  white 
underneath,  turning  every  shade  of  red,  and  in  the  bright  scarlet  flowers 
and  fruit  which  appear  in  early  spring  before  the  leaves.  It  is  adaptive 
to  swampy  situations  as  well  as  to  the  driest.  If  properly  placed,  it  is 
a  sturdy  and  a  more  rapid  grower  than  the  former. 

A.  Mccharinum  Linn.  (141)  (dasycarpum),  Silver  Maple,  resembles 
in  some  forms  of  foliage  the  red  maple,  although  other^vise  it  is  quite 
different  from  the  former  two,  being  irregular  in  outline  with  a  rather 
open  crown  and  a  ;  ;ragg"ii"-g,  spreading,  yet  graceful  branch  system, 
with  long  slender,  often  pendent,  branchlets.  The  foliage  is  deeply 
cut  into  many  acutely-pointed  lobes,  pale  green  above,  silvery  white 
beneath,  and  very  variable  in  outline,  but  always  most  elegant.  It  is 
a  medium-sized  tree,  but  rapid  grower,  especially  in  rich  loam,  where  it 
develops  its  best  form  and  shadiest  crown,  but  it  thrives  also  in  sandy 
and  gravel  soils,  with  a  slimmer  development.  Unfoiiunately  ics  long, 
weak  branches  are  easily  broken  by  storms  hence  its  beauty  is  of  lim- 
ited durat  >n  except  in  sheltered  places.  By  systematic  pruning  this 
trouble  can  be  checked  to  some  extent. 

A  most  pleasing,  cut -leaved  variety,  A.  Weirii  ii4^a),  vies  with  the 
cut-leaved  birch  in  elegance,  but,  like  all  such  freaks,  is  to  be  used 
with  discretion. 

A.  Pennsylvanicum  Linn.  (142),  Striped  Maple,  Moosewood,  a 
small,  slow-growing  tree  of  upright,  handsome,  oval  form,  with  large, 
dark  green,  flaccid  foliage,  long  pendent  racemes  of  flower  and  fruit 
and  green-striped  bark,  is  one  of  the  most  attractive  small  trees  of  north- 
ern range,  the  most  shade-enduring  of  this  very  shade-enduring  genus. 
By  grafting  on  other  maples,  it  can  be  made  to  grow  to  much  larger 
size.  It  needs  rich  soil  for  best  development.  It  is  fine  for  large 
border  plantations. 

A.spicatum  Lam.  (143),  Mountain  Maple,  occurs  generally  as  a  shrub, 
with  small,  pleasing  foliage,  turning  to  a  variety  of  colors  in  autumn. 


266         Trees  for  Shade  and  Ornament 

4    \egu...:o  Linn.  (144),  Boxelder,  Ash-leaved  Maple,  is  a  small  to 
medium-sized  tree,  native  from  Manitoba  south,  with  compact,  rounded 


f  > 

I 


Fig.  89.  -  Norway  Maple.     Acer  platanoides  Linn. 


crown  Its  green  bra>  hlets  of  interest  in  winter,  and  its  ^sh-hke  foha^ 
n Tummer  It  is  o,  very  rapid  growth  on  good  sods,  but  short-hved 
"n  "ones,  although  adaptive  to  almost  any  soils  exceptmg  wet  ones. 


Maples 


267 


It  is  shade-enduring  and  very  shady,  a  good  street  tree  for  narrow 
streets,  and  well  adapted  for  grouping  with  conifers. 


Fig.  90.  —  Sycamore  Maple.     Acer  pseudoplatanus  Linn. 

A.  macrophyUum  Pursh.  (145),  the  Pacific  Coast  or  Oregon  Maple,  is 
a  large,  rapid-growing  tree,  striking  by  its  immenso  size  of  foliage; 
hardly  hardy  north  of  Washington. 

Of  the  many  exotic  species  at  least  four  European  ones  are  desirable, 
and  especially  the  first  two  mentioned  are  not  only  perfectly  acclimated, 


!  U 


^    m^ 


i 


268         Trees  for  Shade  and  Ornament 

but  have  points  which  make  them  equal,  if  not  superior  in  value,  to 

the  native  species:  . 

A.  platanoides  Linn.  (146),  Norway  Maple,  is  nearest  in  outluie, 
habit  and  form  of  foliaRc  to  the  su«ar  maple,  except  that  the  foliage  is 
usually  larger,  of  somewhat  darker  shade,  and  its  dense,  finely  fissured, 
brownish  bark  is  sui)crior  to  the  gray,  flaky  bark  of  the  sugar  maple. 
It  is  the  finest  and  earliest  bloomer  among  the  maples,  with  pendulous 


Fig.  91.  —  Mediterranean  Maple.     Acer  Monsspessulanum  Linn. 

clusters  of  greenish  vellow  flowers  (March,  April),  and  «cels  in  its  long 
leaf  period.  It  is  very  hardy,  a  very  rapid  grower,  and  adaptive  to 
any  soil  and  situation;  a  perfect  shade  tree,  free  from  all  troubles,  alto- 
gether the  most  ser%iccable  maple. 

A.  pseudoplatanus  Linn.  (147).  Sycamore  Maple,  also  from  northern 
Europe,  and  hardy  at  Ottawa  if  grown  from  northern  seed,  is  quite  dis- 
tinctive from  all  other  maples  by  its  large,  rich,  dark  green,  thick  leaves 
on  long  reddish  stems,  and  its  long  pendents  of  conspicuous,  although 
green,  flowers  and  fruit,  a  striking  ornamental.  In  outhne  and  branch 
habit  it  is  less  elegant  and  symmetrical  than  the  former,  being  stifTer 


!. 


Maples 


269 


and  statelier.    Of  rapid  Rrowth,  and  only  slightly  less  adapted  to  soils 
than  the  former,  it  is  an  excellent  shade  tree,  and  is  especially  desirable 

near  houses. 

There  are  three  or  four  other  small  exotic  maples  deserving  atten- 
tion: 


Fig.  92.  —  Tartarian  Maple.     Acer  Ginnala  Max. 

A.  campcslrr  Linn.  (148),  known  as  English  Maple,  but  distributed 
through  all  northern  Europe,  a  tree  rarely  over  thirty  feet,  with  small 
roundish-lobed,  attractive  leaf,  the  foliage  remaining  green  also  in 
winter.  Its  very  formal  habit,  making  a  very  stocky,  round  head,  fits 
it  especially  for  planting  on  knolls,  at  corners,  near  a  bend  in  the  road, 
as  the  center  of  low  shrubbery,  or  in  formal  w  ,jrk.  It  is  of  slow  growth, 
perfectly  hardy  and  adaptive  to  soils. 

A.  Mmtsspessulanum  Linn.  (149).   from  the  Mediterranean,  very 
similar  to  the  English  maple,  is  fit  only  for  southern  planting. 


ill 

I;; 


270        Trees  for  Shade  and  Ornament 

A.  (Jinmla  Max.  (150)  (Tartaricum),  Tartarian  Maple,  from  Russia, 
and  hardy  in  N'  nitoba,  is  a  small  shrub  or  tree  of  shrub-like,  irregular, 
roundish  to  elliptical  form,  with  a  dense,  very  pleasing,  shiny  foliage  of 
roundish  outline,  not  lobed,  but  only  more  or  less  deeply  notched,  which 


Acer  Japonicum  Thunb. 


Fig.  o.V  —  Jaranese  Maple, 
turns  orange,  crimson,  to  dark  purple,  answering  the  purpose  for  which 
the  dainty  Japanese  maples  are  used,  where  these  are  not  hardy.  The 
fruit  also  colors  pleasingly. 

A  number  of  nurserymen's  varieties  increase  the  usefulness  of  this 
genus.  Of  these  may  be  mentioned,  besides  A.  Weirii,  above  referred 
to: 


Maples 


271 


A.  piaianoides  laciniata  (1500),  a  most  distinguished  cut-leaf  variety; 
A.  Schwedleri  (151),  a  fine  Nonvay  maple,  with  the  foliage  turning 
first  crimson,  then  cop|)er  color,  and  .1.  Reitenhachi  (152),  another 
Xorway,  first  green,  then  with  advance  of  the  season  turning  bicHxl-red 
to  purple;  A.  U'f»f/«  (15.?),  a  sycamore  maple,  with  golden-l.ued  '.eaves 
in  spring.  A  mere  oddity  is  the  Kaglc-claw  Maple,  .1.  plalanmdes 
crispum  (iS4). 


Fig.  94.  —  Acer  polymorphum  S.  &  Z. 

Besides  the  native  mountain  maple  and  the  Tartarian  maple,  which 
often  grow  into  shrub-like  forms,  there  i.s  a  jroup  of  maples  from  Japan, 
of  two  species  and  a  long  list  of  varieties,  mostly  dwarfs,  which, 
although  trees  in  form,  are  shrub-like  in  effect  on  account  of  their  low 
stature.  They  are  peculiar,  and  at  the  same  time  most  delicate  m 
outline  and  in  type  and  hue  of  foliage;  for  color  effects  unique  and  most 
interesting  in  carefully  arninged,  refined  plantations,  or  single  speci- 
mens near  the  house. 

A.  Japoitkiin  Thunb.  (155).  the  type  ten  to  fifteen  feet  high,  with 
bright  green,  merely  scalloped  or  fluted  leaves,  and  delicate  pink  flowers 
in  early  spring,  is  hardy  to  semi-hardy  into  Canada.  It  has  given  rise 
to  a  number  of  varieties,  Vvith  larger,  smaller,  deeply  cut  and  variou  '  • 
colored  foliage. 


272         Trees  for  Shade  and  Ornament 

.1.  polymorphum  S.  &.  Z.  {palmatum)  (156),  the  Imsis  of  the  finest 
series  of  low  varieties,  the  type  twelve  to  eighteen  feet,  with  deeply  cut 
to  jKiImate  (five-finKcnd)  leaves,  formed  of  oblong  to  elliptic,  small 
leaflets  of  various  shades.  The  prettiest,  daintiest  is  .1.  atropurpurciim 
dissectum  (i56<j),  five  or  six  to  twelve  feet  high,  with  a  foliage  of  fern-like 
appearance  anil  dark  purple  foliage  throughout  the  year,  on  grac.  ful, 
spreading  s|)rays  of  hranchlets.     Not  hardy  in  Ottawa. 

A.  sanguintu"t  (156^)  (hlotul-leaved)  vies  with  the  former  for  first 
place,  with  a  brighter-colored  hue. 

A.  roseopidum  (156c)  is  a  rarer  treelet,  with  variegated  white,  yellow, 
rose,  and  green  tints. 

ALDERS 

Alnus.  Some  twenty  species,  mostly  of  northern  range,  hence  hardy, 
of  small  trees  or  (mostly)  tall  shrubs,  rapid  growers,  with  dark,  simple 
foliage,  mainly  adapted  for  wet  soils  along  streams,  but  will  thrive  in 
drier  sites.  They  are  useful  as  cheap  nurses,  for  grouping  in  thickets, 
and  as  fillers,  and  combine  well  with  foliage  of  a  leathery  or  sem*  -vcr- 
green  character,  f.)r  fringes  along  watercourses,  pond  ,  ant!  lakes, 
massed  as  they  api>ear  in  nature,  and  as  a  background  to  refined  \>\im- 
tations,  the  few  tree  forms  fit  for  small  lawns.  Their  early  flowers, 
appearing  with  the  first  breath  of  spi'ng  in  graceful,  yellowish  tassels, 
are  their  most  attractive  feature. 

Of  the  tree  forms,  the  largest  and  best  is  the  European  — 

'.  glutinosa  Ga^rtn.  (157),  Black  Mder,  an  interesting  as  well  as 
handsome  small  tree,  with  a  symmetrical,  conical,  or  elliptical  outlire 
and  with  luxuriant,  sliiny,  dark  green  foliage,  of  very  long  leaf  fK'Hod; 
its  slender,  yellovvish,  tassel-like  catkins  in  early  spring,  and  its  cone- 
like fruit  and  dark  bark  making  fine  winter  effects.  Although  most 
natural  near  water,  it  will  grow  well  in  dry  situations,  and  is  very  com- 
mendable for  small  places.  It  is  somewhat  subject  to  attacks  by  leaf 
miners.  It  is  a  rapid  grower,  adaptive  to  all  soils,  and  hardy  even  to 
Manitoba. 

A  cut-lea%-ed  variety,  .1.  imperialis  (157a),  is  very  handsome,  with 
compact,  very  finely  shaped  foliage,  and  pleasing,  ronical  form. 

,1.  cordifolia  {airdata)  Ten.  (158),  from  Ita'  .d  the  Caucasus,  a 
round-headed  tree,  is  said  to  l)e  still  more  ornamental  than  the  former, 
with  a  distinct,  glossier  foliage,  changing  to  orange -yellow,  but  is  not 
quite  hardy  in  the  north. 


Alders  and  Shadbush 


273 


Fig.  95.  —  Black  Alder.    Alnus  glutinosa  Gaertn. 

The  native  species,  six  in  number,  are  mostly  shrubs  oi  shrub-like 
trees,  useff.  for  grouping  on  rocky  sites  and  along  watercourses,  so 
far  but  little  utilized;  among  them,  A.  riigosa  K.  Koch.  (159)  {ser- 
rtdaUi);  A.  incana  Willd.  (160),  with  brown  and  white  dotted  branches; 
A.  viridis  D.  C.  (161),  our  commonest  native  shrubs;  A.  maritima 
Muhl.  (162),  :...  shining  foliage  and  attractive  by  the  development 
of  male  catkins  in  the  fall.  All  of  these  lend  themselves  effectively 
for  massing,  alone  or  with  willows,  their  foliage  starting  earlier  and 
remaining  longer.    They  are  most  adaptive,  atid  easily  transplanted. 

SHADBUSH   OR    JUWEBERRY 
Amelanchier.     A .  Canademis  Medic.  (163),  one  of  the  representatives 
of  a  genus  of  the  rose  family,  from  North  America  and  Japan,  with  a  few 


274         Trees  for  Shade  and  Ornament 

si)ecies  of  small  trees  (fifteen  to  thirty  feet),  is  one  of  the  loveliest  of 
early  bloomers  in  the  woods  (early  April),  with  pi, re  white,  delicate 
flowers  in  short,  open  racemes,  appearing  with  the  delicate  foliage  in 


Fig.  96.  —  Italian  Alder.    Alnus  cordifoUa  Ten. 

profusion,  beginning  the  show  when  quite  young.  The  thin,  rose- 
like,  light  green  leaves  turn  golden -yellow;  the  dark  blue,  edible  fruit 
is  formed  in  June,  and  gives  rise  to  its  Canadian  name.  Sugar  Plum. 
A  round-headed  small  tree,  it  is  fit  for  small  places  or  to  be  grown  in 
shrub  form  on  hillsides,  embankments,  etc.,  being  hardy  everywhere. 
It  is  good  as  a  filler  in  large  nriasses  and  combined  with  evergreens. 


2k 


Birches 


275 


A.  alnifolia  Nutt.  (164),  Sascaloon  Berry,  a  western  species,  is  smaller, 
beginning  to  flower  when  two  to  three  feet  high,  and  is  later  in  bloom- 
ing, otherwise  similar  to  the  above. 

A.  Asiatica  Endl.  (165)  {Japonica),  a  Japanese  si^cies,  differs  by  the 
bright  scarlet  fruit,  which  hangs  on  until  leaf  fall,  and  is  a  stronger 
grower. 

BIRCHES 

Betula.    Some  thirty-five  species,  all  of  northern  distribution,  large, 
medium,  and  small  trees  and  some  shrubs  {B.  nana).    There  are  two 
groups  distinguishable,  which  difTer  very  much  ornamentally,  the  white 
or  paper  birches,  and  the  gray  or  black  birches.    The  former  are  small 
trees  and  comparatively  short-lived,  characterized  by  their  conspicuous 
white  bark,  peeling  more  readily  in  sheets,  and  usually  with  finer  foli- 
age than  the  gray  birches,  which  have  a  darker,  more  compact,  less 
flaky  bark,  and  a  simpler,  coarser  leaf  form.     It  is  the  white  birches, 
and  especially  the  cut-leaved  European  variety,  which,  owing  to  their 
delicate,  graceful  foliage,  turning  goldci:  yellow,  their  slender  branches 
often  with  pendent  branchlets,  and  their  pure  white  bark,  made  Henry 
Ward  Beecher  call  them  (after  Tennyson)  "the   ladies  among  trees." 
Birches,  especially  the  white  ones,  are  among  the  most  light-needing 
species,'and  are  very  rapid,  but,  with  the  exception  of  the  yellow  birch, 
not  persistent  growers.     They  are  adaptive,  esix-cially  the  white  ones,  to 
poor,  sandy  soils,  and  to  any  soils  not  wet  (except  the  cherry  birch). 
Having  a  tracing  root  system,  they  are  easily  transplanted,  but  as  their 
fibrils  are  very  delicate,  this  is  preferably  done  in  early  spring.     .\s 
single  specimens  for  small  places  or  near  the  house,  or  in  groups  along 
watercourses,  or  on  rocky  ledges,  or  grouped  with  larch  and  hemlock, 
the  conifers  of  similar  grace,  they  are  highly  commendable.     The  white 
bark  being  very  conspicuous,  such  grouping  with  more  somber  surround- 
ings brings  best  effect.     Unfortunately,  the  white  birch,  especially  the 
cut-leaved  variety,  suffers  from  a  wood  borer,  which  often  becomes 
destructive. 

B.  alba  Linn.  (166),  the  European  Birch  (botanically,  several  species 
of  small  difTerence  are  distinguished),  is  the  handsomest,  the  most 
graceful  of  the  white  birches,  to  which  the  above  description  applies  most 
typically,  and  this,  in  its  natural  type,  and  still  more  in  its  cut-leaved 
form,  with  its  pendulous  branchlets  and  gossamer-like  tracery  of  foli- 
age, is  most  in  use.     It  should  not  be  confounded  with  the  much  less 


I'r 


I 


276        Trees  for  Shade  and  Ornament 

attractive,  short-lived,  mtiveWhite  Birch  {B.  populifolia  Ait. (167)),  so 
common  in  New  England,  which  is  of  use  only  when  treated  as  a  shrub. 

A  purple-leaved  variety  (alro purpurea)  is  very  fine  for  color  effect. 

B.  papyrifera  Marsh.  (168),  Paper  Birch,  the  most  northern  native 
tree  species,  is  quite  different  from  the  above,  with  a  sturdier,  stouter, 
more  open  branch  system,  and  large,  oval  foliage,  handsome  in  a  differ- 
ent way,  and  worthy  to  be  planted  in  northern  grounds  more  than  it  is, 
especially  in  combination  with  evergreens  and  variously  colored  decidu- 
ous trees  for  winter  effect.  A  distinct  and  most  pleasing  form  with 
narrow,  glossy  leaves  and  pendulous  habit  was  found  by  the  writer 

near  Quebec. 

Of  the  gray  birches,  two  species,  both  native  to  our  northern  woods, 
have  their  ornamental  value,  differing  mainly  in  the  color  of  their  bark. 

B.  lutea  Michx.  (169),  Yellow  or  Gray  Birch,  a  stately  tree,  growing 
to  large  dimensions,  of  roundish  outline.  The  small  spurs  or  twigs 
from  which  the  foliage  develops  give  it  a  lively  winter  aspect,  to  which 
is  added  in  older  trees  the  pleasing  effect  of  the  bark  of  yellowish,  sU- 
very  hue  (from  which  the  name),  peeling  off  in  very  fine  layers  and 
curiing  back,  giving  it  a  somewhat  shaggy,  interesting  appearance. 
The  branch  habit  is  upright  and  stouter  than  in  the  white  birches,  and 
the  outline  oval.  The  simple  foliage  is  peculiariy  arranged  in  pairs. 
It  is  adaptive  to  heavy  clay  soils,  but  also  to  lighter  ones,  less  light-need- 
ing than  the  white  birches,  but  as  rapidly  growing.  It  is  best  used  in 
single  specimens  in  places  where  its  large  size  can  be  accommodated. 

B.  letita  Linn.  (170),  Cherry  or  Sweet  or  Black  Birch,  is  a  medium- 
sized  tree,  of  somewha'  more  southern  distribution,  hardly  distinguished 
in  its  foliage  from  the  former,  but  with  a  somber,  dark,  close  bark, 
resembling  that  of  a  black  cherry  when  young,  and  not,  or  hardly,  peel- 
ing; of  regular,  graceful,  roundish  outline,  and  sometimes  with  pendu- 
lous branches.    It  is  adaptive  to  wet  soils. 


BOX 

Bums,  the  well-known  evergreen,  is  represented  by  a  number  of 
species  of  small  trees  and  shrubs,  two  of  which,  with  several  varieties, 
are  in  cultivation.  They  are  mostly  trained  into  shrubs,  especially 
useful  for  borders  and  hedges,  capable  of  being  sheared  into  any  form, 
which  has  led  to  the  well-known  aberrations  in  formal  gardening. 
Their   shade-endurance    makes   them    desirable    for   under-planting. 


Box— Hornbeam— Chestnut 


277 


They  are  especially  adapted  to  combination  with  other  evergreens,  Mke 
laurel  and  rhododendron,  and  for  winter  effects.  Tender  to  semi- 
hardy  in  the  North.  ,        ,         .         ir 

B  sempervirens  Linn.  (171),  from  En-land  and  southern  Europe 
into  Asia,  is  the  common  Box,  a  tree  growing  from  three  feet  (north) 
in  fifteen' feet  (south).  The  variety  B.  suffruticosa  {171a)  is  the  one 
mostly  employed,  being  a  dwarf,  and  hence  easily  kept  as  a  low  bor- 
der Varieties,  B.  aurea  (1716),  with  yellow-striped,  and  B.  argentea 
(171c),  with  white-striped  leaves,  B.  anguslifolia  (ijid),  with  narrower 
leaves,  and  several  others  have  their  value. 

B.  Balearica  Willd.  (172),  Minorca  or  Japanese  Box,  from  western 
Europe  and  Asia,  with  large,  yellowish-green  leaves,  makes  a  pretty 
tree,  with  compact,  round  head.    Needs  winter  protection  in  the  North. 

HORNBEAM,   WATER   BEECH,    BLUE   BEECH 

Carpinus.  C.  Caroliniana  Walt.  (175).  is  one  of  the  most  satisfactory, 
small  (twenty  feet),  native,  hardy  trees  of  wide  distribution;  beech-like 
in  ai  warance,  with  the  same  kind  of  gray,  smooth  bark,  the  stem 
pecu  arly  corrugated,  with  outline  rather  roundish  or  flat,  horizontally 
spreading,  somewhat  straggling  branch  habit,  with  many  small  twigs, 
often  pendulous;  leaves  beech-like,  but  thinner  and  more  closely  to- 
gether, turning  crimson,  scariet,  or  orange-yellow.  It  is  a  slow  grower 
and  shade-enduring,  like  the  beech,  but  adaptive  to  more  barren  soils, 
although  best  near  good  water-supply.  It  is  specially  fitted  for  water 
scenery,  also  good  for  hedges  which  shear  well,  for  undergrowth,  and 
as  a  filler;  free  from  insects. 

C.  Belulus  Linn.  (176),  the  European  species,  hardly  differs  from 

the  American,  and  is  less  hardy. 

A  number  of  Japanese  and  other  exotics,  small  trees  and  shrubs, 
are  used,  among  which  C.  Japonica  (177)  excels  in  graceful  habit  and 
elegance  of  foliage. 

CHESTNUT 

Castanea.  A  genus  of  five  species,  tall  trees  to  shrubs,  of  consider- 
able economic  value,  as  well  as  ornamental  by  form,  leaf,  and  flower. 

C.  Americana  Raf.  (178)  (dentata),  the  native  species,  which  is 
hardy  into  Canada,  differs  little  in  character  from  the  less  hardy  Euro- 
pean, C.  saliva  Mill.  (179),  except  in  the  si/x  uf  liic  nut  and  longer  kaf 


I 


278         Trees  for  Shade  and  Ornament 


period.  Our  species  in  its  youth  is  of  erect  symmetrical  habit,  but  in 
time  become^  spreading  and  inclined  to  low  branching,  forming  a  very 
broad,  roundish  crown  with  short,  pendulous  body;  it  is  picturesque 
rather  than  pleasin.,-  in  its  outline,  with  a  clean,  glossy,  rather  coarse 
foliage.  The  white,  feathery,  semi  pendent  catkins,  in  June,  lend  addi- 
tional attraction  and  even  grace  to  the  flowering  i;ee.  It  is  a  very 
rapid  grower,  and  adaptive  to  a  variety  of  soils  except  wet  and  compact 
ones,  but  needs  deep  soil  for  its  heart  roots.  Like  all  nut  trees,  it  is 
not  easily  transplanted  in  older  sj^-cimeiis.  It  is  comparatively  free 
from  insects  and  other  troubles,  but  unclean,  the  fall  of  the  long  flower 
catkins,  of  the  fruit  and  its  burs,  and  of  the  coarse  foliage  making  con- 
tinuous litter.  An  excellent  sprouter,  it  repairs  damage  easily,  and  is 
moderately  shade-enduring.  It  is  best  used  in  specimens  on  large 
grounds,  where  it  may  rival  the  oak  in  picturcsqueness,  or  else  in 
groves.  Lately,  a  most  destructive  fungus  disease  has  developed  in 
this  species,  which  is  making  havoc  in  planted  as  well  as  in  natural 
growths. 

C.  putnila  Mill,  (180),  the  associated  Chinquapin,  of  more  soi  them 
distribution  (from  New  Jersey  south),  is  a  small  tree,  or  more  often  a 
low  shrub,  and  has  a  more  attractive  foliagj  when  in  shrub  form,  namely, 
a  narrower  and  silvery  white  leaf,  a  desirable  ornament. 

Castanopsis.  C  chrysophylla  D.  C.  (iSi),  the  Pacific  Coast  Chinqua- 
pin, with  a  foliage  glossy  green  above  and  golden-yellow  on  the  under 
side,  is  hardy  only  in  the  South. 

Catalpa.  C.cordifoliaJa.ume\{speciosa).  The  well  known  Catalpa 
or  Bean  Tree,  is  one  of  eight  species,  native,  and  from  Asia,  four  of  which 
are  hardy.  It  is  a  small  to  medium-sized  tree  of  southern  and  western 
distribution,  but  half  hardy  as  far  north  as  Ottawa,  and  perf.-ctly  so  in 
New  York.  It  is  mainly  of  interest  because  of  its  large,  tropical-looking 
and  rather  ungainly  foliage,  which  is  among  the  latest  to  appear  and  the 
earliest  to  fall,  and  for  its  large,  upright  panicles  of  striking,  white,  pur- 
ple-tinged flowers,  appearing  late  (June,  July),  and  for  its  odd  fruit  pods 
(beans),  which  hang  on  through  much  of  the  winter.  It  has  not  much 
claim  for  beauty,  with  its  ungainly,  sprawling  limbs  and  unsymmetrical 
outline.  The  successive  fall  of  its  flowers,  leaves,  and  fruit  makes  it 
uncleanly,  although  it  is  free  from  insects  and  only  occasionally  attack  a 
by  a  leaf  spot  fungus.  It  is  easily  transplanted  and  a  very  rapid  grower 
on  good  soil,  and  is  satisfied  with  most  soils  unless  excessively  dry.    Its 


Hackberries,  Nettle  Tree 


279 


commercial  value  has  been  lately  much  overrated.  Its  main  use  is 
among  flowering  shrubs,  for  its  flowers  and  large  leaves. 

C.  hignonioidcs  Walt.  (182),  its  less  desirable  congener,  is  of  more 
straggling  habit,  otherwise  difi"icult  to  distinguish,  and  is  very  likely 
substituted  in  nurseries,  unintentionally. 

Of  slightly  superior  value  are  the  Japanese  and  Chinese  species  — 
C  avata  Don.  (183)  {Kampferi),  with  smaller,  m.re  pleasing  foliage, 
the  small  flowers  with  dull  purple  dots  and  the  fruit  in  more  delicate 
pods;  and  C.  Bungei  C.  A.  May  (184),  a  dwarf,  with  lar^e  glossy  foliage, 
sometimes  confounded  with  a  nurseryman's  round-headed,  grafted  form 
of  bignonioides. 

HACKBERRIES,   NETTLE   TREE 

Celtis.  Some  fifty  or  sixty  species  in  various  parts  of  the  world,  trees 
or  shrubs,  have  a  secondary  ornamental  value,  infericr  to  that  of  the  elms 
which  they  much  resemble,  although  their  more  compact  crown,  their 
freedom  from  insect  and  fungus  diseases,  their  thriftin-ss  in  almost  any 

soil,  are  advantages. 

C.  occidentalis  Linn.  (185),  Hackherry  or  Nettle  Tree,  a  medmm 
size  to  large  tree,  native  and  of  wide  distribution  from  north  to  south 
and  west,  is  hardy  in  the  Canadian  Northwest.  It  is  elm-like,  but  with 
smaller,  darker  foliage,  more  compact  and  spreading  habit,  and  with  a 
very  dense  foliage.  It  grows  in  most  soils  ui.less  excessively  dry.  It 
deserves  more  attention  for  roadside  planting  and  as  a  shade  tree  than 
it  has  so  far  received.     Its  freedom  from  diseases  makes  it  especially 

desirable.  .        ,  .  ,    . 

C  Bungeanu  Blume  (186)  (er  .leously  called  Stnensts,  which  is 
another  species,  not  hardy),  is  a  native  of  China,  but,  in  protected 
positions,  is  quite  hardy  in  the  North.  Its  dark  green  foliage,  glossy 
on  both  sides,  is  said  to  make  an  excellent  shade  tree. 

Cercidiphylhun.  C.  Japonicum  S.  &  Z.  (187),  from  Japan,  is  one  of  the 
best  of  the  recent  introduct-ns.  l>cing  a  small  bushy  tree  (although  in 
its  native  habitat  growing  to  timber  size),  of  pyramidal,  almost  fastigiate 
form,  .....  handsome,  roundish  foliage  of  purplish  tinge  when  unfold- 
ing, later  becoming  bright  green,  and  turning  llov  and  scarlet  m  the 
fall.  Its  foliage  develops  on  small  spurs  or  short  shoots  all  along  the 
stems  and  branches,  making  it  specially  leafy  when  young  and  the  foli- 


28o        Trees  for  Shade  and  Ornament 


age  persists  through  winter  in  its  younger  stages.     It  is  hardy  as  far  as 
Ottawa  and  grows  rapidly  in  rich,  moist  soil. 

Cercis.     C.  Canadensis  Linn.  (i88),  Red  Bud,  Judas  Tree,  is  one  of 
seven  species,  native  and  from  southern  Europe  and  Japan;  a  small 


Fig.  97. — Cercidiphyllum  Japoiiinim  S.  &  Z. 

(twenty-five  to  thirty  feet)  native  tree  of  wide  distribution  from  New 
Jersey  south,  but  hardy  farther  nor  and  apt  to  "winter-kill"  in  un- 
protected situations.  It  is  of  roun  i  t)utlinc,  and  most  pleasing  and 
showy,  not  only  in  its  profusion  of  bright  pink  to  red  flowers  which  in 
Apr'  before  leafing  adorn  in  a  singular  fashion  the  almost  black -barked 
branches  and  even  the  trunk,  but  also  in  its  round,  somewhat  heart- 
or  kidney-shaped,  glossy,  dark,  bluish-green  foliage  (May),  light  green 


Dogwoods 


281 


to  silvery  underneath.  It  thrives  best  on  \,  11- drained  soils,  is  easily 
handled  and  free  from  insect  troubles.  It  may  be  used  very  satisfac- 
torily for  its  eariy  flower  effect  in  front  of  conifers  and  grouped  with 
shrubs  or  other  small  trees  on  woodland  edges.  Its  color  effect  lacing 
very  strrng,  it  is  best  combined  with  eariy  bloomers  of  lighter  color. 

The  European  C.  Siliquastrum  Linn.  (189),  and  the  Japanese  C. 
Sinensis  Bunge.  (190)  {Japonica),  the  latter  more  shrub-like,  are  less 
hardy  and  have  hardly  any  superior  points  except  that  they  bear  larger 
and  mere  profuse  flowers. 

Chionanthus.  C.  Virginica  Linn.  (191),  Fringe  Tree,  is  a  small, 
slender  tree,  often  shrub-like,  native  from  Pennsylvania  south,  hut  in 
sheltered  positions  hardy  north  to  Ottawa.  Its  large,  deep-green  and 
glossy,  magnolia-like  leathery  foliage  (unfortunately  late  in  leafing  out) 
and  an  abundance  of  long  drwiping  panicles  of  delicate  white,  pe- 
culiariy  shaped,  lace-like  flowers  (May,  June),  constitute  it-,  ornamental 
value.  It  is  free  from  insects  and  fungus  diseases,  and  adaptive  to 
most  soils,  but  prefers  moist  ones.  For  borders  of  groups  and  in  single 
specimens,  or  among  garden  shrubs,  it  is  satisfactory  material. 


I 'I 


DOGWOODS 

Comus.  Some  thirty  species,  small  trees  and  shrubs  and  perennwl 
herbs,  of  wide  distribution,  and  mostly  hardy  and  frugal.  Man:  - 
them  are  attractive  in  flower,  foliage,  and  fruit.  They  are  very  com- 
pact, bushy,  and  shade-enduring,  indeed  are  preferably  grown  in  the 
shade,  and  in  northern  localities  in  protected  places.  They  are  adap- 
tive to  soils  and  free  from  insects,  except  a  scale.  They  are  primarily 
used  for  large  border  plantings  in  coarse  naturalistic  arrangement,  and 
for  color  effect  in  winter  and  eariy  spring.  Many  of  them  having  vari- 
ously colored  branches,   they   especially   lend   themselves   for   winter 

effects. 

C.florida  Linn.  (192),  Flowering  Dogwood,  mainly  of  southern  dis- 
tribution, but  hardy  into  Canada,  a  tree  rarely  over  thirty  feet,  very 
spreading,  apple-tree-like  in  habit,  is  the  eariiest  and  most  luxuriant 
bloomer,  its  large  greenish-white  flowers  appearing  before  any  foliage 
is  out.  The  foliage,  crowded  to  the  ends  of  the  twigs,  is  made  of  rather 
broad  shining  leaves.  With  its  brilliant  crimson  to  dark  red  foliage 
and  its  scarlet-red  berries,  it  makes  fine  autumn  effects.    It  i;^  specially 


282         Trees  for  Shade  and  Ornament 

adapted  for  skirting  Ixiunda-ics  of  evergreen  groups,  and  for  the  interior 
of  groves,  but  it  needs  rich  soil  and  grows  slowly. 

Of  several  varieties  the  red-flowering  one  (rubra)  may  have  its  place 
in  grouping  with  the  white-flowering;  a  pendulous  one  makes  a  go<id 
weeping  form. 

C.  dternifolia  Linn.  (193),  Alternate  Leaf  Dogwood,  is  a   smaller 


Fig.  98.  —  Cockspur  Thorn.     Crataegus  Crus-galli  Linn. 

hardy  native  tree,  or  more  often  a  shrub,  with  smaller  yellowish-white 
flowers  (June)  in  ilat  clusters,  and  black  to  blue  berry-like  fruit,  with 
foliage  dark  green  al^ne  and  pale  beneath,  with  a  horizontal  spread  of 
bright  shiny-green  branchlets. 

For  winter  effects  the  purplish  branches  and  silky  down  of  the  native 
C.  amomuni  Mill.  (194)  (sericra),  Kinnikinnik,  a  spreading  shrub 
(live  to  ten  feel)  (Ixaiing  wliiie  flower.-,  in  clu.stcrs  and  blue  bern'e>'), 
and  the  red  branches  of  the  red  European  C.  sanguinea  Linn.  (195),  ■ 


Thorn  Trees.      Hawthorn 


283 


of  t^    American  stolonijera  (196),  Red  Osier,  also  both  shrubs,  are  com- 
mendable and  hardy.  ^,    .,     ■        .     u 

C.  circinata  L'FIert.  (197),  native  from  Canada  to  Florida,  is  a  shrub 
(five  to  ten  feet)  with  numerov:  slender  branches  and  spreading  head, 
especially  useful  in  that  it  thrives  in  sandy  soils.  The  white  flowers 
appear  in  flat  cymes  (May),  and  arc  followed  by  pale  blue  fruit. 

For  earlv  color  effect,  the  Eurofx-an  — 

C.  Mas  Linn.  (198),  Cornelian  Cherry,  half  hardy  into  Canada,  a 
small  round-headed  tree  or  shrub,  with  glossy  foliage,  and  a  profuse 
inflorescence  of  delicately  scented,  yellow  flowers,  followed  by  large, 
elliptical,  red  fruit,  is  commendable. 

C.  alba  Linn.  (199)  {tartarica.,  Siberica),  an  Asiatic,  very  hardy  tree 
species  with  white  flowers  and  white  berries  and  fine,  red  l)ranchcs; 
also  several  other  shruh'v  forms,  f-A'.,  C  Siberica  varicfiata  iu)ga),  with 
variegated,  yellowish-white  and  green  foliage,  are  useful  for  contrasts, 
but  the  finest  of  the  variegated  is  C.  Spiclhi  (iqqb),  th'  leaves  dark, 
almost  bronze  in  spring,  assuming  yellow  and  white  margins,  which 

persist.  . 

C.  Honda  Burg.  (200),  a  recent  introduction  from  Japan,  is  a  small 
tree,  similar  to  C.  Jlorida,  the  flowers  appearing  after  the  leaves  and 
being  whiter  and  star-shaped,  and  the  bracts  (which  arc  the  showy 
part)  elliptical.    It  is  hardy  in  Massachusetts. 


THORN   TREES.    HAWTHORN 

Cratsegus.  A  genus  of  over  one  hundred  and  fifty  species  and  many 
varieties,  mostly  of  northern  range,  furnishes  small  trees  and  shrubs, 
highly  ornamental  throughout  all  seasons  in  their  form,  foliage,  flowers," 
fruit.  Their  form  is  rather  irregular,  sometimes  straggling,  but  usually 
sturdy  nd  of  roundish  outline,  and  they  can  be  readily  trained  to  any 
desired  form.  The  foliage  of  each  is  distinctive,  usually  prettily  cut, 
dense,  of  lively  hue,  and  turning  to  various  brilliant  autumn  colors. 
The  flowers  are  white,  pink,  or  scarlet,  in  some  cases  double  and  rose- 
like,  generally  in  flat-topped  clusters,  appearing  in  the  different  species 
at  different  times,  and  hence  may  be  made  effective  by  grouping  them 
together.  The  apple-like  fruit  is  yellow  or  red,  in  a  few  cases  blue,  and 
hangs  usually  long  into  the  winter.    They  are  mostly  spiny. 

They  grow  best  in  rich  loamy  soil,  but  adapt  themselves  to  stiff  clay 
as  well  as  to  light,  sandy  soil.    They  are  very  hardy,  healthy,  and 


284        Trees  for  Shade  and  Ornament 


sturdy,  although  leaf-miners,  weevils,  apple-borers,  and  other  insects 
are  not  entirely  absent.  A  powdery  mildew  sometimes  attacks  the  foli- 
age. Having  a  long  tap-root,  they  should  be  transplanted  early.  They 
are  moderately  shade-enduring,  respond  well  to  pruning,  and  arc  suit- 
able for  hedges.  They  are  most  satisfactory  ornaments  for  small 
grounds,  yards,  fields,  etc.,  in  grouping  with  low  shrubs.  A,  they  are 
easily  transplanted  from  fields,  they  may  be  used  for  quick  effects,  as 
accent  trees,  etc. 

Not  less  than  one  hundred  and  thirty-two  species  are  described  as 
native  to  the  United  States,  but  there  is  still  doubt  as  to  their  identifica- 
tion, some  holding  as  species  what  others  recognize  as  varieties.  At 
least, four  or  five,  however,  deserve  special  attention. 

C.  Crus-galli  Linn.  (201),  Cocks  pur  Thorn,  a  tree,  perfectly  hardy, 
growing  sometimes  to  a  height  of  forty  feet,  of  very  wide  distribution, 
with  wide-spreading  branches  in  characteristic,  shelving  tiers  or  whorls 
and  sometimes  pendent  branch  tips,  with  thick,  dark  green,  glossy 
leaves,  tummg  bright  orange  and  scarlet,  with  pinkish-white  flowers 
(May,  June),  and  bright  red  (edible)  fruit  hanging  on  into  winter.  It 
is  adaptive  to  any  soil  and  situation  (seaside),  and  more  shade-endur- 
ing than  most  of  the  others. 

'  C.  coccinea  Linn.  (202),  Scarlet  Thorn,  a  smaller  tree  (ten  to  twenty- 
five  feet),  of  the  same  wide  range  and  beauty,  with  regular  form,  light 
green,  thin  but  dense,  wedge-shaped  foliage,  white  flowers  (April, 
June),  and  striking,  scarlet  fruit,  hanging  long.  A  species  or  variety, 
C.  macracantha  (202a),  has  longer,  slender  spines  and  fragrant  flowers. 
Several  other  %arieties  are  in  existence. 

C.  mollis  Scheele.  (20^),  While  Thorn,  which  has  sometimes  been 
considered  a  variety  of  cocci.tea,  but  is  now  recognized  as  a  species,  is  a 
most  snowy  tree,  witl<  large  leaves,  bright  green  above,  hairy  beneath, 
large  white  flowers  and  brilliant,  scarlet  fruit,  vhich  does  not  hang 
long;  but  the  white  branches  with  chestnut-brown  spines  are  effective 
throughout  the  winter. 

C.  pyracantha  Pers.  (204)  (Pyracanlha  coccinea),  the  evergreen  native 
species,  is  a  shrub,  some  ten  feet  in  height,  its  glossy  leaves  turning 
brownish-purple  and  hanging  on  long,  and  its  scarlet  fruit  making  it 
a  most  desirable  ornament  in  groups  and  for  hedges,  although  a  slow 
grower.    It  is  hardy  as  far  as  New  York. 

C.  oxyacantha  Linn.  (205),  the  true  Hawthorn,  is  the  best  known 
European  species,  a  well-shaped  tree,  of  not  more  than  fifteen  to  twenty 


Persimmon  —  Beech 


285 


feet  in  height,  with  rigid,  spreiKJing  branches  and  many  stout  spines, 
deeply  bbcd  and  t(x)thed,  glossy,  roundish  foliage,  white,  fragrant 
flowers  in  flat  clusters,  and  deei>  red  fruit  persisting  into  winter.  This 
species  is  half  hardy  in  Ottawa.  A  Silx-rian  form  of  this,  and  a  Silx-- 
rian  si)ecies,  C".  .ian^^nirea  Linn.  (206),  have  Ix-en  found  hardy  in  the 
Northwest.  A  nuinlnT  of  varieties,  with  pink,  scarlet,  and  double 
flowers,  offer  ad<lition;U  ornamental  value.  Very  subject  to  attacks  of 
plant  lice.     A  good  hedge  plant. 

C.  monogvua  Jacq.  (207),  from  North  Africa  and  Asia,  furnishes  a 
large  number  of  useful  forms,  mostly  shrubs,  with  double  flowers,  and 
other  variations;  among  them,  C.  Pauli  (207a),  Paul's  Double  Scarlet, 
is  most  brilliant  in  color  in  early  spring. 


PERSIMMON    (EBONY) 

Diospyrus.  D.  Virghiiana  Linn.  {2oS~  one  of  one  hundred  and  eighty 
species,  all  exotic  but  this  one,  is  a  mediui.i-sized  to  small  tree,  mainly 
of  southern  range,  but  hardy  north  of  New  York  in  sheltered  and  warm 
spots.  It  is  of  minor  ornamental  value,  but  of  botanical  interest,  with 
its  jx-culiar,  platy  bark,  and  brown  plum-like  fruit.  When  at  its  oest, 
of  pleasing  aspect,  with  a  rounded  or  elliptical  outline,  of)en  irregular 
branch  system,  and  glossy  foliage,  turning  to  rich  orange.  It  is  adap- 
tive to  almost  any  soil,  but  thrives  best  in  deep  rich  ones.  Having  a 
long  tap-root,  it  does  not  transplant  readily.  It  suffers  occasionally 
from  a  leaf  spot  fungus.  It  is  best  used  in  groups  of  small  trees  or  shrubs 
on  small  places. 

D.  Kaki  Linn.  (209),  the  Japanese  species,  prized  for  its  large  frui  , 
is  fit  only  for  southern  planting. 


BEECH 

Fagus.  A  small  genus  with  five  species;  of  wide,  mostly  northern 
range;  large  trees.  Two  of  the  species  with  three  or  four  varieties  are 
among  the  finest,  most  magnificent  ornamental  and  shade  trees  in  exist- 
ence. Witli  statelv,  upright  form  of  ovoid  outline,  in  later  life  spread- 
ing; becomes  ample  and  an  admirable  show  in  winter,  with  its  slender, 
graceful  sj.rays  of  twigs  in  shcK  itig  licts,  and  lung  p^iinted  brown  buds 
and  silver-gray,  smooth  bark.     Delicate,  pale  green,  glossy  foliage  in 


mm. 


2b6        Trees  for  Shade  and  Ornament 

spring,  becoming  deep  green  in  summer  and  turning  brown,  finally 
bleaching  out  white,  persisting  partly  through  the  winter.  Best  devel- 
oped in  a  loamy,  even  stiff,  deep,  moist  st)il,  but  will  also  grow  in  shal- 
lower and  drier  situations  and  limestone  soils;  although  then  rooting 
near  th'j  surface  and  Ix-ing  |KK)r  in  form.  It  is  a  rather  slow  grower, 
but  is  one  of  the  most  shade  induring  forest  trees,  and  so  shady  that  no 
f^i.  ss  will  grow  under  it.  1  ree  from  insects,  and  clean,  but  in  later 
life  liable  to  fungus  disease,  ar-'  in  its  youth  to  frost  and  to  sun-scald. 
St)mewhat  dificult  to  transplant  on  account  of  its  deep  rooting.  A 
sujwrior  tree  for  lawns  with  ample  sixice,  rivaling  the  oaks,  which  it 
excels  in  quiet  elegance.  It  is  excellent  for  grouping  with  evergreens 
on  a  large  scale. 

Two  species  are  planted: 

F.  ferruf^inea  Ait.  (210)  (Americana),  American  Beech,  distributed 
throughout  the  eastern  United  States  and  Canada  and  — 

F.  silvatica  Linn.  (211),  European  Beech.    The  latter  is  somewhat 
less  hardy  but  rather  superior  by  virtue  of  its  earlier  leafing  out,  with 

smaller,  more  delicate  foli- 
age, frinped  by  long  hairs 
around  the  margin,  and 
with  a  more  compact 
form. 

For  color  efTect,  a  nat- 
ural, well-known  variety, 
purpurea  (211a),  Purple- 
leaved  or  Copper  Beech, 
furnishes  the  finest  dark- 
lea  >.d  form,  fit  for  small 
surroundings  and  for  con- 
trast. It  needs  favorable 
sites  to  maintain  its 
bca'Jty. 

Several  cut-leaved  and 
pendulous  varieties  are 
rather  attractive;  espe- 
cially var.  heterophylla 
(311/1),     and    var.    quer- 


FiG.  99.  —  European  Beech.     Fagus 
silvatica  Linn. 


coides  (211c),  are  beautiful,  dense,  low  trees,  with  interestingly  lobed 
foliage. 


■^r-^-^J^fc-- 


Hollies 


287 


HOLLIES 

nez.  T}iis  large  Rcnus  of  some  one  hundred  and  seventy-five  species 
of  world-wide  distribution,  and  a  large  number  of  varieties,  furnishes 
small  trees  and  s...ubs,  of  much  ornamental  value  by  virtue  of  their 
foliage,  which  in  st>veral  species  is  ev.-rgreen,  spiny,  and  unique,  and 
by  their  delicate,  white  (lowers,  and  their  bright  »x:rry  which  hangs 
throughout  the  winter.  Their  great  sha<U -endurance  and  their  slow 
growth  fit  them  especially  for  under-planting;  indeed,  the  evergreen 
species  thrive  best  in  the  shade.  They  <!o  not  transplant  easily  when 
old,  having  a  deep-going  rm)t.  They  are  free  from  insects,  but  some- 
whit  liable  to  frost,  and  "burn"  badly.  Since  these  are  dioecious,  i.e., 
male  and  female  on  different  plants,  anl  since  the  berries  are  their 
great  attraction,  care  must  Ijc  taken  to  select  female  trees.  They 
are  well  adapted  to  grouping  ^viih  other  evergreen  and  leather- 
leaf    fcliage,    and    where    dignity,    yet    not    overmuch   formality,   is 

desired.  ,,. ,  „ 

/.  opaca  Ait.  (212),  the  native,  evergreen  Holly  of  the  Middle  and 
Southern  States,  is  hardy  to  half  hardy  north  into  Canada,  a  small  tree 
of  oval  outline,  flowering  in  June,  and  much  used  for  its  red  berries  as 
a  Christmas  green.  It  thrives  best  in  deep  rich  soils  and  in  the  shade, 
although  growing  also  in  dr>',  barren  situations,  but  not  in  wet  and 
comiMCt  soils.  It  is  not  easily  transplanted,  and  in  exposed  ix)sition 
its  leaves  become  brown  and  shabby  ("bum").  When  transplanting, 
the  leaves  should  be  removed  and  the  tree  cut  back. 

/.  aquifolhun  Linn.  (213),  the  English  (European)  Holly,  is  less 
hardy,  thriving  in  New  England,  although  only  in  well-protected  places, 
but  is  superior  to  the  former  because  of  its  larger,  darker,  thicker,  more 
wavy  and  bristly,  glossier  foliage,  and  greater  abundance  of  red  ber- 
ries. To  increase  its  hardiness,  it  is  grafted  on  nM)ts  of  tlie  American 
holly.     It  prunes  well  and  makes  a  first-class  hedge. 

The  very  striking,  golden-leaved,  silver-edged,  mottled,  and  many 
other  showy  varieties  are  tender. 

The  two  Japanese  species,  of  the  eleven  native  there,  have  hardly  yet 
come  into  use,  but  are  of  great  promise,  namely. 

/.  latifolia  Thunb.  (214),  a  larger  tree,  with  much  larger  (up  to  seven- 
inch)  leaves,  with  red  berries,  said  to  be  most  beautiful; 

/.  crewato  Thuno.  (215),  w^th  much  smaller  (one-inch),  finer  leaves 
and  black  berries,  is  a  gem,     id  more  easily  transplanted;  mostly  in 


I    1 


288 


Trees  for  Shade  and  Ornament 


shrub  form  and  much  branched.  Neither  of  them  appears  to  be 
quite  hardy  north  of  New  York. 

For  more  southern  planting  also,  the  native  shrub  or  tree,  /.  vomitoria 
Ait.  (216),  Ctissoie,  may  be  mentioned. 

The  deciduous-leaved,  native  hollies,  which  hardly  remind  one  in 
their  foliage  of  the  evergreens,  are  all  shrubs,  of  value  by  virtue  of  their 
bright  red  fruit,  for  early  winter  effects  (7.  vertkillata  Gray  (217), 
monticola  Gray  (218),  krcigata  (iray  (219)  ),  or  for  their  glossy,  leathery 
leaves  (/.  j^labra  Gray  (220),  decidua  Walt.  (221),  Cassine  Dahoon 
(222)  ),  and  are  hardy. 

Liquidambar.  L.  styraciflua  Linn.  (223),  Red  Gum,  Sweet  Gum, 
Bilsted,  is  a  tall,  h  Iky  tree,  nati\x  from  Connecticut  to  Texas,  and 
hardy.  It  is  of  conical,  symmetrical,  regular  outline,  rather  open 
coarse  branch  habit,  with  large,  star-shaped,  glossy  leaves  resembling 
the  maple,  turning  brilliant  purple  to  scarlet  with  yellow  tints,  and 
with  interesting  ball-like  shar])-pointed  pendulous  fruit  hanging  on 
through  winter.  The  gray  corky-winged  bark  of  the  sturdy  branches 
and  the  reddish-black  deeply  fissured  bark  of  the  trunk  add  to  the  win- 
ter effect.  It  is  a  most  oniamcntal  tree,  free  from  insects,  easily  handled, 
moderately  shade-enduring,  and  giving  a  pleasing  shade;  of  moderately 
rapid  growth.     It  is  fit  fur  use  in  formal  landscape,  and  for  shade. 

MAGNOLIA 

This  family  contains  two  genera  wiili  a  large  number  of  species, 
mainly  of  southern  distribution,  largo  to  small  trees  and  shrubs.  They 
are  noted  for  their  large  and  showy  tlowers  and  large  leaves,  generally 
clustered  at  the  ends  of  the  branches,  and  their  coarse,  open,  straggling 
branch  habit,  although  some  have  shapely  outlines.  They  are  medium 
to  rapid  growers,  usually  free  from  troubles,  liglii-needing,  with  a  deej) 
root  system,  requiring  special  can-  !"  transplanting. 

Oi  the  large  trees,  the  mo>t  -.  .actory  and  most  widely  adapted, 
useful,  interesting,  and  ornamental,  is  — 

Liriodendron.  L.tiilipifcni  Linn.  (224),  Tulip  Trce,\Vlnlewood,  Yellow 
Poplar,  the  '-Giant  Tree"  of  the  East,  with  a  range  from  north  to  south 
and  into  southwestern  Ontario.  Growing  rapidly  and  of  fine  sym- 
metrical form,  its  perfectly  straight  stem  and  conical  outline  reminding 
one  of  the  conifer  habit.  Besides  its  pleasing  form,  its  value  lies  in  the 
uiediuin-sized,   peculiarly  shaped,  glossy   foliage,   in   the  fall   turning 


Magnolia 


289 


golden-yellow;  a  unique,  tulip-shaped  flower,  yellowish  green,  tipped 
with  orange  (June);  a  cone-shaped,  erect  fruit,  hanging  on  through  the 
winter;  a  soft,  finely  fissured,  gray  bark,  and,  in  older  trees,  up-curved 
branch  tips.  It  is,  then,  an  object  of  interest  through  all  the  year; 
without  insect  troubles  and  with  hardly  any  fungus  disease;  without 
bad  habits.  Having  a  deep  root  system  it  requires  care  in  transplant- 
ing, thriving  best  in  strong,  deep,  well-drained,  clay  soil,  but  adaptive. 
It  is  ver>'  light-needing,  and  does  not  stand  pruning  well.  For  shade 
near  the  house,  single  on  large  lawns,  or  for  stately  avenues,  it  is  most 
commendable,  but  is  less  favorable  in  streets. 

Of  the  true  magnolias,  most  of  the  native  ones  are  fit  only  for  south- 
em  planting. 

Magnolia.  M.  fatiJa  (L.)  Sarg.  (225)  {grand ijlora),  Bull  Bay,  of  the 
Southern  States,  half  hardy  as  far  north  as  Philadelphia;  with  deep 
green,  leathery  leaves,  persisting  through  the  winter,  large,  white,  showy 
flowers,  and  large,  showy,  red  fruit;  it  is  the  most  handsome  of  the 

family. 

The  other  species  of  southern  range  are  mainly  of  botanical  interest, 
odd  and  tropical-looking,  especially  the  very  large-leaved  (two  feet), 
and  large-flowered  — 

M.  macrophylla  Michx.  (226),  and  the  Umbrella-tree,  M.  tripelala 
Linn.  (227),  ft)un(l  as  far  north  as  Pennsylvania  and  hardy  even  on  Long 

Island. 

Of  magnolias  of  more  northern  range,  the  small  tree,  often  shrub- 
like— 

M.  glaitca  Linn.  (228),  Swamp  Magnolia,  found  native  as  far  north 
as  Massachusetts,  is  unexcelled  for  use  in  clusters,  in  wet  places,  and 
elsewhere  on  rich  ground.  Us  glossy,  small,  thick,  rubber-like  foliage, 
in  favorable  situations  hanging  on  until  midwinter,  its  exquisite,  cream- 
white,  fragrant  flowers,  continuing  to  blossom  from  June  to  September, 
its  deep  red  seeds  in  the  green  foliage,  make  it  worthy  of  more  atten- 
tion than  is  so  far  bestowed  on  it. 

M.  acuminata  Linn.  (229),  Cucumber-tree,  the  other  northern  mag- 
nolia, is  half  hardy  to  hardy  as  far  north  as  Ottawa.  A  tall,  stately  tree, 
the  most  shapely  of  the  magnolias,  upright  and' regular,  cone-like, 
artificial  in  its  make-up,  with  large,  luxuriant  foliage  crowded  to  the 
ends  of  the  twigs,  it  is  excellently  adapted  for  the  center  of  groups  and 
as  a  background,  or  as  a  single  tree  on  lawns,  where  its  peculiarities 
are  to  be  the  attraction. 


290         Trees  for  Shade  and  Ornament 


The  exotic  magnolias  from  China  anl  Japan  form  quite  a  gi<jup  by 
themselves,  and  are  prized  for  the  profusion  and  magnificence  of  their 
early  flowers.  They  are  hardier  than  most  of  our  natives  and  can  be 
grown  as  far  north  as  New  England,  forming  most  desirable  ornaments 
for  every  garden  and  small  place,  especially  when  grouped  with  kalmia, 
rhododendron,  and  other  evergreen  shrubberj'.  For  best  flower 
effects  they  should  be  kept  trimmed  to  shrub  form.  There  are  many 
species,  varieties,  and  hybrids,  varj-ing  mainly  in  color  and  size  of 
flower. 

The  most  commonly  planted,  remarkable  for  the  profusion  of  their 
large  fragrant  flowers  which  appear  before  the  leaves  in  earliest  spring, 
are  — 

M.  Yidan  Desf.  (230)  (conspicua),  a  small  tree  from  China,  semi-hardy 
into  New  York  and  New  England,  with  pure  white  flowers; 

M.  ohovata  Thunb.  (231)  {purpurea)  is  usually  a  large  shrub  with 
stout  branches  and  purple  flowers,  and  a  variety  of  this,  M.  gracilis,  is 
a  small  bushy  shrub,  with  slender  branches  and  dark  purple  flowers 
(May,  June). 

M.  parviflora  S.  &  Z.  (232)  and  M.  Waisoni  Hook.  (232a)  excel  by 
their  large,  creamy-white  flowers  with  crimson  stamens. 

M.  skllata  Max.  (233)  (Halleana),  one  of  the  most  beautiful  of  the 
smaller  trees  (eight  feet),  compact  and  with  spreading  branches,  is 
quite  hardy,  bearing  profuse,  small,  white,  dainty,  and  fragrant  flowers 
when  quite  small,  and  very  early  (March,  .\pril). 

M.  Kobiis  Thunb.  (234),  from  Japan,  one  of  the  hardiest  (as  far  as 
Toronto),  is  a  medium-sized  tree,  with  yellowish-white  flowers  bloom- 
ing rather  later  in  life. 

.1/.  hypoletica  S.  &  Z.  (235),  a  tall  tree  from  Japan,  and  also  quite 
hardy,  with  verj-  large  leaves,  bright  green  above,  silvery-white  to  bluish 
beneath,  and  very  large,  fragrant,  creamy-white  jx'tals  with  scarlet 
stamens,  blooming  after  leafing,  and  showy  fruit  in  fall. 

M.  Sotihmgetuid  Soul.  ^236),  probably  a  hybrid  of  the  two  pre- 
ceding, of  lower  stature  and  spreading  habit,  with  immense  white 
flowers  appearing  later  than  those  of  the  former,  is  also  one  of  the 
hardiest. 

M.  speciosa  (236a),  also  a  hybrid  of  the  above,  with  red  and  white 
or  rose-colored  flowers,  appearing  still  later. 

M.  Alc.xandrina,  another  hybrid,  is  a  small  tree  of  bushy  habit, 
with  large,  pink  flowers  (April,  May). 


Mulberries— Tupelo— Osmanthus        291 


Morus  A  genus  of  a  doubtful  number  of  species,  mostly  small 
trees  and  shrubs,  of  minor  ornamental  value,  but  pleasing  m  the.r 
shining,  dark  green,  roundish  foliage,  and  valuable  because  of  fru- 
gality and  shade-endurance.  When  plante<l  as  a  shade  tree  the  edible 
fruit  is  rather  a  nuisance,  as  it  litters  the  ground. 

M  rubra  Linn.  (238),  the  native  Red  Mulberry,  distributed  north  into 
southern  Canada,  is  a  medium-sized  tree,  most  readily  grown,  and  a 

good  shader.  .  ,    ,- 

M.  nigra  Linn.  (239),  the  Black  Mulberry,  from  Persia,  and  M. 
alba  Linn.  (240),  the  White  Mulberry,  the  two  silkworm  feeders  are 
small  trees  or  shrubs  and  have  no  special  points  superior  to  the  fore- 
going, except  that  they  are  probably  hardy  farther  north  and  have  a 
finer  foliage. 

TUPELO 

Nyssa.    For  brilliant  autumn  colors  there  are  few  native  trees  finer 
than  the  two  native  species  of  large  trees: 

N  sylvatica  Marsh.  (24.),  Pepperidge,  Sour  Gum,  of  the  north, 
and  .V.  aquatia,  Linn.  (uuilUmi)  (242),  Large  Tupelo,  of  more 
southern  range.  Their  small,  dark,  glossy,  ovate  leaves,  turning  t.ery 
scarlet  in  autumn,  and  lasting  for  weeks,  give  rare  brilliancy  to  groups 
of  duller  hue.  In  form  thev  are  straggling,  but  by  the  shelving  tie.s  ot 
their  tortuous,  spreading  branches  are  often  interesting.  Ih.s  form 
seems  dependent  on  soil,  wet  or  .Iry  ones,  to  both  of  which  it  is 
adapted,  while  in  better  soils  it  is  apt  to  develop  short  branches  and  a 
columnar  outline.  No  troubles  e.xcept  occasional  leaf  fungi  may  be 
anticipate.!.  Unless  proi>erly  prepared  in  the  nursery,  they  do  not 
transplant  readily. 

OSMANTHUS 

\  genus  of  the  olive  familv  furnishes  three  species,  dwarf  trees,  one 
from  the  United  Stales,  the  other  two  from  Jai.an  an<l  China,  only 
semi-hardy,  which  are  desirable,  esiH.'cially  as  winter  ornaments,  for 
their  evergreen  foliage,  similar  to  holly. 

O  Unericamis  B.  &  H.  (243),  ''ve  to  six  feet,  with  long  (four-mch), 
thick.  Elossy  leaves,  and  purple,  nut-like  fruit  from  the  axillary,  sessile 
flowers  in  threes    jUne). 


292         Trees  for  Shade  and  Ornament 

O.  aquifolium  Sit-b.  (244),  a  somewhat  taller  tree,  from  Japan,  with 
glossy,  holly-like,  spiny  leaves,  sweet-scented,  white  flowers,  appearing 


Fig.  100.  —  Paulownia.     Paul<mnia  imperialis  S.  &  Z.  . 

in  the  fail;  is  superior  to  the  former.     \  variety,  O.  Uicifolium  (244a), 
with  smaller  leaves  and  more  compact  head,  is  hardier  than  the  species, 


Hop  Hornbeam.     Ironwood  293 

and  advantageously  used  on  light  soils  for  a  ground  cover  in  woods, 

^^  a^;t:^i:' •  (.5)  mafra^ra.,,  is  a  sn^aj.  t.ee,  eight  to  ten 
feet  from  China,  aistinguished  by  its  pretty,  very  fragrant,  yellow.sh- 
.hile  flowers  (June),  but  with  less  showy  foliage;  Us  hardmess  ques- 
tionable.   It  may  be  grown  in  pots. 

HOP  HORNBEAM.    IRONWOOD 

Ostrya.  O.  Virginica  Willd.  (245  bis),  is  a  small,  native  tree,  with  thin, 
birch-like  foliage,  turning  a  f\ne  russet;  similar  to  Carpinus,  but  of  more 
'gula  outline  and  branch  habit  and  with  -"-  ^^'^^^^  f"'-^f'  ^;, 
young  twigs  reddish  (birch-like),  the  old  bark  flaky.  Fhe  pendulous 
g"en'  odd  shaped  fruit  adds  to  its  ornamental  value  wh.ch  .s  s.m.la 
fo  th^  Hombe^.     Its  use  is  similar  to  the  precedmg,  the  gray  bark 

adding  to  its  winter  effect.  . 

O    vulgaris  WiUd.  {car pinif olio)  (246),  the  European  species,  has 

no  special  superior  points. 

SORREL  TREE 
Oxydendron  (Andromeda).  O.arhoreumX)  C.  (247).  A  beautiful  and 
characteristic  small  tree  (fifteen  to  forty  feet),  of  the  Heath  fam.ly  (see 
Shrub),  native  of  the  southern  Alleghanies,  with  spreadmg  crown 
shiny  leaves,  which  turn  early  into  glorious  autumn  colors;  graceful 
spravs  of  large,  white,  bell-shaped  flowers  api>ear  in  early  summer; 
this  tree  can  be  well  grouped  with  K-  •■«,  Rhododendron,  and  other 
evergreen  shrubs  of  the  kin.l,  show  especial  adva.Uage  as  the 

center  of  the  group. 

PAULOWNIA 

Paulownia.  P.  mpma/fs  S.  &  Z.  (248).  This  is  a  small  to  medium- 
sized  tree  from  Japan;  of  rather  stragghng,  open  form,  very  large  and 
tropical-looking,  Catalpa-like  leaves,  and  abundant,  large,  purplish 
blue  or  violet,  most  fragrant  flowers  in  stiff,  terminal  panicles  of  large 
size  (June);  followed  by  nut-like  fruit.  Striking  rather  than  orna- 
mental, it  can  be  kept  in  form  only  by  severe  pruning,  which  k  stands 
,,.^j,  ap,^  then  its  luxuriant  foliage  is  valuable.  Cut  back  to  the 
ground  evcrv  year,  it  can  be  readily  kept  in  bush  form,  making  shoots 


tlHl 

I'-  i-f 


294         Trees  for  Shade  and  Ornament 

of  six  to  eight  feet  in  a  year.  Most  easily  propagated  from  seeds  or 
cutting,  and  a  most  rapid  grower  in  almost  any  soil.  It  is  only  semi- 
hardy  north  of  New  York. 


APPLES  AND  APPLE-LIKE  FORMS  (QUINCES,  MEDLARS,  CRAB 

APPLES,    ETC.) 

Pirus  (including  Cydonia).     This  is  a  family  of  a  very  large  number 
of  species  and  endless  varieties  of  small  trees  and  shrubs,  of  wide  dis- 
tribution, furnishing,  be- 
sides our  Ix'st  fruit  trees 
(apples,  pears,  quinces), 
a  considerable  number  of 
ornamentals,  both  native 
and     exotics;      pleasing, 
some  by  form,  some  by 
foliage,   some    by    flower 
and     fruit.       They     are 
mostly  hardy,  and  usually 
adaptive    to     soils,    and 
easily   transplaiUfd,    but 
they  are,   like  all    freely 
cultivated    plants,    liable 
to   a  considerable  extent 
to    insect     troubles    and 
fungus  diseases. 

Besides  the  common 
apple  {P.  Mains  Linn. 
(249)  ),  which,  with  its 
rounded  head,  especially 
when  in  flower,  is  a  most 
pleasing  object  in  a  rustic 
landscape,  two  small  crab 

apples,  both  with  roundish  heads,  the  one  native,  the  other  from  China, 

deser\e  special  notice. 

P.  coromtia  Linn.  (250),  from  the  Middle  and  Western  States,  with 

pale  red,  sweet-scented  flowers,  appearing  with  the  leaves,  followed  by 

?  yellow  ^reen  Iruit;  also  a  variety  with  double  flowers;  and  — 
P.  spectabilis  Ait.  (251),  from  China,  the  most  ornamental  in   form, 


loi.  —  Pirns  spectabilis  Ait. 


i 


Apples  and  Apple-Like  Forms  295 

with  oval,  smooth  leaves,  and  double  ro.e-colored  flowers  in  umbels 
(April,  Mav),  also  a  variety,  P.  flore  rosea  plena,  whose  flowers  are 
neariy  two  inches  in  diameter.    Similar  to  this  is— 

P   lansis  Bailey  var.  Bechtel  (252),  with  very  fragrant,  rose-like, 


Fig.  102.  —  Pirus  loensis  Bailey. 

double  flowers,  appearing  after  the  leaves  are  fully  developed,  lengthen- 
ing the  period  of  apple  blossoms  by  several  weeks.  ^  ^    .  ^  , 

V  baTcata  Linn  (253)  and  P.  pmnifalia  Willd.  (254)  (-th  larger 
fruit)  Siberian  Crab  {Paradise  Apple)  with  a  profusion  of  handsome 
.J:  flowers,  and  small  yellow  and  cherry-red  fruit.  This  tree  is 
hardy  as  far  as  the  Canadian  Northwest. 


296        Trees  for  Shade  and  Ornament 

Two  Japanese  Crabs,  both  per'ectly  hardy  and  tree  from  insects 
and  diseases,  are  often  planted: 


Fig.  10,5.  —  Pirus  baccc'a  Linn. 

P.floribiinda  Nichols  (255),  one  of  the  most  ornamental  of  its  kind,  a 
dwarf,  with  a  profusion  of  rich  rose-red  flowers  in  early  spring,  continu- 
ing into  the  summer;  foliowcfl  by  a  red  fruit  on  long  stalks.  The  vari- 
ety Parkmanii  (255(7),  with  rich  dark  foliage  and  semi-double  flowers, 
has  proved  less  hardy. 

P.  Toriuf^o  Sich.  (256),  also  a  dwarf,  with  white  flowers  in  small 
clusters,  the  fruit  the  size  of  a  large  pea. 


33E3i 


Apples  and  Apple-Like  Forms  297 

Of  quinces  the  most  commonly  planted  is  the  well-known  — 
P.  Sinensis  Lindl.  (257)  {Cydonia  Japonica),  Japanese  Quince  or 
Japonica,  or  Strawberry  Bush,  most  attractive  with  its  wealth  of  vari- 


FiG.  104.  —  Pirus  prunifolia  Willd. 

ously-shaded,  mostly  dark  red  or  scarlet,  very  fragrant  flowers,  appear- 
ing in-'fore  the  leaves,  and  its  dark,  glossy,  vari-hued  foliage.  It  is  well 
adapted  for  hedges,  indeed  being  superior  to  many  other  hedge  plants. 
It  is  especially  striking  when  in  flower  and  when  trained  as  a  standard 
with  pendent  branches.  It  is  most  easily  grown  from  cuttings,  and 
quite  hardy,  but  for  best  results  should  have  a  rich  soil. 


298 


Trees  for  Shade  and  Ornament 


A  numlx>r  of  varieties  prcs'-nt  variations  in  color  foliage  and  stat- 
ure.    Of  these  may  be  inentioncd:    P.  Moorlosi  (2$ja),  with   jx-ndu- 

lous  branches,  low  statuiT, 
small,  narrow  foliaRe,  and 
pink  to  white  flowers;  P. 
macrocarpa  (257/'),  with 
very  spreading  habit  and 
light  red  flowers;  P.  rosea 
Jiore  plena  (257c),  with 
large, semi-double  rose-like 
flowers;  P.  grandijiara 
(2S7rf),  with  very  large, 
pink  and  white  flowers, 
and  graceful  habit;  P. 
nivalis  (257^),  and  siiv- 
plex  (257/),  with  white 
flowers;  P.  foliis  ruhris 
(257J?),  a  low  bush  with 
dark  red  leaves  and  sal- 
mon-red colored  fruit.  \ 
newly  introduced  attrac- 
tive variety  — 

P.  N iedzivetzkyana 
(257/1)  excels  in  red  color, 
all  parts  of  the  plant  par- 
taking in  it. 

P.  Maulei  Mast.  (258) 
is  useful  because  of  its  dwarf  form  (three  feet)  and  compact  habit, 
with  a  plenitude  of  thorns,  dark  green,  lustrous  foliage,  and  large, 
showy  flowers,  varying  from  orange  to  scarlet.  The  hardiest  of  the 
Japanese  quinces. 


Fig.  105.  —  Pirus  floribunda  Nichols. 


SYCAMORES,      PLANE-TREE 

Platanus.  Of  the  six  or  seven  species,  native  and  of  oriental  origin, 
two  species  are  frecjuently  planted,  one  native  and  one  exotic.  They 
are  imjMJsing  trees,  of  rapid  growth,  broad,  spreading  habit,  with  mas- 
sive limbs,  but  ojx'n-branch  system  and  rather  symmetrical  outline, 
with  large  leaves,  whose  size  makes  up  for  their  scanty  number,  with 


^ 


Sycamores.     Plane-Tree 


299 


an  interesting,  pendent,  ball -sliaiH;  fruit  (buttons).  StiU  more  inter- 
esting and  effective  in  its  color  scheme  is  the  yellowish-brown  to  gray 
bark  which  peels  off  in  irregular  patches  (•Clothes  tree"),  cxjiosing  a 


Fig.  106.  —  Strawberry  Bush.     I'irus  Sinensis  Lindl. 


white  to  greenish  skin,  and  giving  the  .stem  and  bra;  chcs  a  mottled 
ap|x;arance. 

P.  occidentalis  Linn,  yi^q),  the  Amrrinin  Sycamore  or  BuHnnwood, 
is  hardy  into  Canada,  but  unfortunately  liable  to  injury  by  a  leaf  fun- 
gus. It  grows  to  jxindcrous  size.  Its  soft,  grayish,  large  foliage  does 
not  group  well  with  other  trees,  hence  it  should  be    used   alone,  and 


300        Trees  for  Shade  and  Ornament 

cs|x-cially  for  stately  a\°nucs  and  wide  streets.  The  scanty  branch 
system  can  to  some  degree  l)c  im|)rovcd  ujwn  by  pra|)er  pruning.  It 
has  a  long  leaf  pciiod  but  no  attractive  coloring,  and  it  is  rather  uncleanly 
iK'cause  of  shedding  its  bark.  It  is  adapted  to  most  soils,  even  wet  ones 
(a  swamp  and  overflow  tree),  and  is  very  light-needing;  it  transplants 

easily. 

P.  oricntaiis  Linn.  {260),  the  European  Plane-tree,  is  very  much  like 
the  former,  except  that  it  is  later  in  leafing,  and  with  two  fruit-balls 
from  one  stem;  s<inuwhat  denser  foliage;  more  compact  habit  and  pos- 
sibly whiter  skin;  is  free  from  fungus  troubles,  but  less  hardy. 

P.  \\'rii;htii  Wats.  (261),  from  .Arizona,  is  superior  in  the  sha{)e  of 
its  deeply  juienteil  foliage  and  desir\es  trial  in  southern  planting. 

P.  cuncata  Willd.  (262)  and  (uerij'olia  Willd.  (263)  and  some  varieties 
of  these  have  no  jjarticular  points  of  superiority. 


POPLARS 

Populus.  This  widely  distributed  genus  of  some  twenty-five  species, 
of  which  ele\  ;n  are  indigenous  to  North  America,  is  composed  of  tall 
to  small  trees,  of  very  rapid  j/rowth.  They  are  among  >.he  most  light- 
needing  and  most  frugal  sp«.cies,  adapted  to  all  kinds  of  soils,  the  driest 
as  well  as  the  wettest,  but  thrive  best  on  well-watered  ones,  —  the  tall 
trees  are  indeed  greedy  for  water.  Tolerably  healthy  and  without 
troubles,  except  that  some  sucker  undesirably.  They  are  most  easily 
transplanted,  and  most  of  them  hardy. 

The  name  indicates  the  popularity  as  a  widely  planted  tree,  on  account 
of  the  ease  of  its  propagation  (planting  of  poles  or  cuttings),  and  the 
rapidity  of  its  growth.    They  have  also  certain  valuable  omamentaft, 
features,  the  light  shade  they  give,  and  the  lively  aspect  of  their  ^t& 
foliage,  quivering  in  the  slightest  breeze.  'v 

They  are  to  be  used  with  moderation,  mainly  in  single  specim«8|s 
along  watercourses  and  wet  meadows,  near  houses,  on  avenues,  where 
their  forr    .1  monotony  is  not  objectionable,  for  highways  and  as  accent 

trees. 

P.  deltoidea  Marsh.  (264)  {monili/era  or  canadensis),  Colknwood,  is 
the  largest,  a  native  of  widest  range  and  also  one  of  the  most  ornamen- 
tal, with  its  large,  clean,  glossy  ioliage,  inuving  in  every  breeze;  with  the 
longest  leaf  period,  its  foliage  coming  early  and  staying  late,  turning 
pale  yellow  in  the  fall.    It  is  a  good  street  tree,  as  it  does  not  sucker 


Poplars 


301 


much,  stands  smoki-  and  al)iisi',  and  is  unr?can  only  when  the  catkins 
fall.  It  Iniomi's  ratlur  a  massive  oliject,  with  ()|K'n,  hroad  crown, 
when  the  youn(»,  more  nniieal  [K-riod  with  slender  hranch  habit  is  passetl. 

The  other  northeastern  native,  with  a  flilTerent  lance-shaped,  tri- 
angular form,  and  a  ditTerent  tone  of  foiiage  (yellowish  l)eneath)  — 

/'.  halstimifrni  I^inn.  (^65),  including  its  variety  candicans, Balsam 
Poplar  or  Balm  o/iUleaJ,  so  called  from  the  fragrant  large  brown  sticky 
buds,  is  of  more  symmetrical,  slender,  and  tai)ering  form;  it  is  adapted 
t'  [ilan»'nu  c.n  r'.:<dsides,  near  houses,  and  near  water,  but  is  somewhat 
more  liai)le  to  sucker  than  die  former. 

Of  exotics  that  have  been  much  planted   - 

P.  dilalala  .\it.  (2f)6),  Lombardy  Poplar,  oi  Kurope,  is  used  mainly 
for  its  prjamidal,  asjjiring  form,  where  sentinels  are  needed  as  at  the 
entrance  of  parks,  to  mark  the  jK)shion  of  houses,  or  to  make  some 
jxiint  conspicuous;  or  in  the  background  to  create  the  impression  of 
di-stance.  Its  late  leaf  |K'riod  and  golden-yellow  autumn  tints  arc  also 
plca.-.ing.     Unfortunately  it  suckers  readily. 

P.  alba  Linn.  (267),  Silver-leaf  Poplar  or  Ahtle,  also  of  Eurojx?, 
furnishes  a  unicjue  material  for  color  cfTcct,  with  a  striking,  peculiarly- 
shaped,  three-  to  five-lnUd  leaf,  dark  glossy  atK)ve  and  silver-white 
downy  beneath,  the  cfTtct  l)cing  heightened  by  the  greenish-white  bark 
of  branches  and  trunk.  It,  however,  suckers  worse  than  any  of  the 
p<iplars  and  hence  has  fallen  into  discredit;  but  is  nevertheless  useful 
to  make  conspicuous  a  high  jMiint,  or  to  set  otT  a  group  of  dark  firs,  etc. 

Two  small  trees  have  value  in  special  situations  — 

P.  tremuloi.ies  M'  hx.  (268)  and  grand identata  Michx.  (269),  the 
native  Common,  and  liie  Large-toothed  Aspen,  which,  if  grown  on  good 
soil,  make  handsome  round-headed  trees  with  pleasing  foliage;  the 
latter  especially  gives  an  elegant  and  airy  ai)pcarance  with  its  silky 
young  foliagi',  later  assuming  a  glossy,  dark  green  color  and  somewhat 
itather>-  texture.  It  is  of  roundish  shafK-,  with  yellowish-green  stem  and 
branches.     It  is  also  less  liable  to  surkcring  than  is  the  Common  Aspen. 

Several  Sil)erian  sjK-cies  have  l>cen  introduced,  mainly  for  their 
special  hardiness.  Of  these  there  may  be  mentioned  one  also  for  its 
ornamental  value,  namely: 

P.  laurifolia  Ledib.  (270),  which  is  the  basis  for  the  forms  known 
under  the  names  Certinensis  (2700),  Bereolensis  (270/)),  and  Petro7'ski 
(27CK-),  differing  more  or  less  in  the  shape  of  the  foliage.  The  growth 
of  these  is  more  sturdy  than  that  of  our  natives  ones,  compact  and  yet 


302         Trees  for  Shade  and  Ornament 

aspiring;  the  foliage  very  heavy  and  dense,  of  darker  color,  oblong  to 
roundish,  and  characteristically  disposed  in  horizontal  layers.  These 
forms  are  seemingly  less  liable  to  rust  fungi,  very  rapid  growers,  and 
thoroughly  hardy. 


Fig.  107.  —  Japanese  Flowering  Cherry.     Primus  Pseudo-Cerasus 

Lindl. 

P.  Razumo/skiaria  (270  bis)  is  another  Russian,  with  oblong  foliage, 
which  seems  little  known  in  this  country,  but  in  its  native  habitat  is 
considered  by  far  the  finest,  forming  a  large  picturesque  tree,  and  is 
the  most  rapid  grower  of  all  the  poplars.  A  specimen  at  Ottawa 
proves  perfectly  hardy,  and  promises  to  live  uj)  to  its  reputation. 


CHERRIES,   PEACHES,   PLUMS 

Prunus  (Cerasus)      This  large  genus  of  the  rose  family,  with  about 
seventy-five  s[)fries,  cont.'iin.-  many  sm.all  tree-  and  shrubs  worthy  of 


K3ir^. 


Cherries,  Peaches,  Plums 


303 


attention.  Their  ornamental  value  in  form,  foliage,  and  flower  is  en- 
hanced by  that  of  the  fruit.  Although  the  flower  display  is  rather 
short,  its  early  a|)i)earance,  and  the  easy  growth  and  hardiness  of 
these  trees,  being  mostly  of  northern  distribution,  are  commendable 


Fig.  108.  —  Japanese  .Ahnond.     Prunus  Japmica  Thunb. 

features.  They  arc  mostly  light-needing,  short-lived,  and  unfortunately 
liable  to  both  insect  and  fungus  diseases,  and  somewhat  to  frost.  They 
prefer  light  soils.  For  flower  effect  in  woodland  plantings  and  in  front 
of  other  shrubbery  and  trees,  as  accent  trees,  and  for  temp<jrary  use, 
they  have  .sjiecial  value. 

The  most  ornamental  species  are  those  from  China  and  Japan,  gen- 
erally seen  in  varieties  and  nurserj'men's  forms,  with  double  and  rose- 


304         Trees  for  Shade  and  Ornament 


color  or  pink  flowers;  these  have  also  the  advantage  of  being  without 
insect  enemies  (as  yet!). 

P.  Pseiido-Cerasiis,  var.  horlensis  Max.  (271),  the  celebrated 
Flowering  Cherry  from  Japan,  and  a  long  list  of  other  varieties  and 
forms,  are  very  valuable  in  form  and  in  ilowering,  some  with  large 
double  white  flowers  (April,  May).  They  are  only  half  hardy  in  New 
England. 


Fig.  109.  —  Japanese  Plum.     Prunus  Pissardii  Dipp. 

P.  Japimiea  Thunb.  (272)  (Sinensis),  is  a  small  tree  of  the  almond 
tribe,  with  a  profusion  of  large,  white,  rose-like  flowers  arriving  in  ad- 
vance of  the  foliage.  Varieties  of  dwarf  habit  and  of  red  or  rose-colored 
flowers  arc  equally  showy.  There  is,  however,  considerable  doubt  as 
to  the  proper  application  of  the  name,  since  there  are  at  least  si.x 
different  species  or  forms  offered  under  the  same  name. 

P.  Pissardii  Dipp.  (cerici/cra  atro purpurea)  (27.?),  Japanese  Plum. 
For  color  there  is  hardly  any  more  satisfactory  small  tree  to  be  found 


Cherries,  Peaches,  Plums 


305 


than  this  tree,  with  its  soft  purple  leaves,  which  retain  their  color  better 
than  most  purple  trees,  especially  when  properly  pruned;  a  small  tree 
(  f  rapid  growth  and  good  form.    Not  hardy  in  Ottawa. 

P.  Amygdaliis  Stokes  (274),  Flowering  Almond,  is  a  tree  twenty  to 
thiity  feet  in  height,  with  several  improved  varieties,  which  are  most 
ornamental,  light  rose-colored  showy  flowers  appearing  very  early  in 
March  and  A])ril  before  the  leaves  arrive.  There  are  also  double  and 
white  flowering  varieties. 

P.  Perska  S.  &  Z.  (275),  the  Common  Peach,  also  in  various  vari- 
eties, with  double,  rose-colored,  crimson,  red  and  ■  '  ite  (versicolor) 
delicate  flowers.    It  is  rather  short-lived,  unless  oruned  and 

fertilized  with  wood  ashes. 

P.  Armenlaca  Linn.  (276)  and  P.  Mume  S.  &.  Z.  (277)  the  Chinese  or 
Armenian  and  Japanese  Apricots,  are  well  worthy  oi  attention  for 
ornamental  purposes,  not  only  because  of  their  profusion  of  pinkish 
flowers  but  because  of  their  bright  foliage,  which,  especially  in  the 
young  shoots,  is  tinged  with  red.  They  are  very  hardy  and  adaptive 
to  most  soils,  but  must  be  kept  in  good  shape  by  systematic  pruning. 

Of  native  plums  or  sloes,  two  are  attractive  by  reason  of  the  very 
early  clusters  of  delicate  white  flowers  and  the  black  and  yellow  to 
reddish  fruit: 

P.  spinosa  Linn.  (278),  Black  Thorn,  the  more  northern,  hardy,  and 
P.  angustifolia  March.  (279)  (Chicasa),  Yellow  or  Chickasau  Plum, 
the  more  southern,  appear  in  form  as  shrubs  more  usually  than  trees, 
with  rather  straggling  but  erect  habit  and  thorn-like  brunchlets.  They 
are  not  particular  as  regards  soil,  and  shade-enduring,  and  hence  useful 
for  under-planting. 

P.  maritima  Wangh.  (280),  Beach  Plum,  is  also  a  hardy  shrub, 
valuable  as  a  soil  cover  and  for  its  usefulness  in  planting  along  sea- 
beaches  and  other  inhospitable  situations. 

The  only  large  tree  of  this  group  is  our  native  widely  distributed  — 

P.  serotina  Ehrh.  (281),  Black  Wild  Cherry,  native  into  Canada, 
a  tall,  not  very  spreading  tree,  with  roundish,  open  crown  and  often 
drooping  branchlets;  is  attractive  in  possessing  beautiful  white  flowers 
in  racemes;  is  rather  thinly  foliaged,  with  a  shapely,  omewhat  leathery' 
glossy  leaf,  turning  deep  crimson  in  autumn,  and  with  a  dark  almost 
black  fruit,  which  in  its  fall  renders  the  tree  rather  unclean  and  undesir- 
able. An  interesting  raggedly-plated,  dark  bark  ^  ith  slender  purplish- 
red  branchlets  make  a  g(K)d  winter  effect.     It  is  fit  only  for  lawns  of 


3o6         Trees  for  Shade  and  Ornament 

some  extent  and  near  houses,  giving  a  light  shade.  It  is  adajrtive 
to  light,  deep,  sandy  soils,  such  as  dunes,  but  also  to  more  compact 
soils,  and  is  a  very  thrifty  and  rapid  grower. 

P.  Padus  Linn.  (282),  English  Bird  Cherry.  A  small  flat-headed 
tree  ^i  shrub,  otherwise  similar  to  the  foregoing;  blooms  earlier  (May), 
but  has  less  pleasing  foliage. 

P.  Pcunsylvanica  Linn.  (283),  Pin  Cherry  or  Bird  Cherry,  is  an 
interesting  small  native  tree,  often  hardly  more  than  a  bush,  distributed 
over  almost  the  whole  northern  part  of  the  continent,  springing  up 
freely  after  forest  fires.  Its  small  white  flowers,  lively  green  foliage, 
but  more  particularly  its  cherry- red  fruit,  the  size  of  a  pin  or  pea,  are 
its  rttraction.     It  grows  in  any  dry  soil. 

P.  Mahaleh  Linn.  (284),  Mahaleb  Cherry,  a  small  slender  tree 
(15  to  20  feet)  from  the  Caucasus  and  middle  Europe,  hardy  to 
Ottawa,  is  more  ornamental  than  the  Hird  Cherry,  by  reason  of  its 
apricot -like  glossy  foliage  of  pale  green  color,  on  slender  but  abun- 
dant sprays,  and  with  as  fine  flower  and  fruit  as  the  foregoing,  the 
flowers  being  fragrant  and  in  umbels  (May,  June). 


OAK 

Quercus.  This  genus,  of  not  less  than  two  hundred  and  seventy-five 
species,  over  fifty  of  which  are  found  in  North  America,  represents 
among  the  broad  leaf  trees  what  the  pine  represents  among  the  con- 
ifers, in  usefulness  and  in  wide  distribution,  but  it  excels  in  number  of 
species  and  in  ornamental  value,  ranging  in  size  from  majestic  trees 
to  small  shrubs,  with  a  variety  of  foliage  and  of  form  hardly  equaled 
by  any  other  single  genus.  The  oaks  are  inhabitants  of  the  northern 
temperate  zone,  occurring,  however,  alst)  in  the  tropics  in  high  altitudes, 
and  are  extremely  adaptive  to  soils  from  the  driest  to  the  swamp.  The 
deciduous  ones  are  mostly  hardy  in  the  north,  the  evergreen  not  north 
of  Washington.  They  are  the  emljodiment  of  sturdiness  and  persist- 
ency, holding  on  to  life  wherever  there  is  a  chance,  with  remarkable 
recuperative  power.  They  are  light-needing,  but  will  persist  in  the 
shade  for  a  long  time.  Although  normally  having  a  tap-root  system, 
they  readily  adapt  themselves,  jK-rmit  any  amount  of  pruning  at  top 
and  root,  so  that  mere  root  stumps  may  be  transplanted  and  grc  •  into 
trees.  They  grow  at  a  more  rapid  rate  than  they  are  usually  credited, 
but,  to  be  sure,  the  majestic,  broad-crowned  beauties  are  centenarians. 


White  Oaks 


307 


Alt^rf)UKh  not  entirely  immune,  they  are  remarkably  free  from  insect 
trouble  and  disease.  The  foliage  of  most  oaks  has  a  long  period  and 
continues  to  hang  on  in  the  drj'  condition,  or,  in  the  case  of  exotics, 
green  into  the  winter. 

The  great  variety  of  outline  and  of  pleasing  leaf  shapes  and  leaf 
colors,  with  rich  tones  in  autumn,  the  sturdiness  of  growth  and  stateli- 
ness  of  form,  the  freedom  from  disease,  the  easy  adaptation  to  soil, 
the  wide  climatic  range,  the  rapidity  and  j)ersistency  of  growth,  and 
the  ease  of  repairing  damage  —  all  these  qualities  combine  to  make  the 
oaks,  together  with  the  maples,  the  most  useful  trees  in  landscape 
gardening.  Most  of  them  are  sp-reading  in  habit,  with  a  bold,  free,  and 
usually  irregular,  outline.     For  l)est  effects  the>  demand  large  space. 

Botanically  as  well  as  from  the  <^rnamental  jxiint  of  view,  the  oaks 
may  be  tlivided  into  four  groups.  The  "white"  oaks,  which  mature 
their  fruit  in  one  year,  receive  their  name  from  the  light  gray  color  of 
their  bark,  nnd  have  their  foliage  with  rounded  indentations  or  lobes. 
The  "black"  oaks,  which  mature  their  fruit  in  two  years,  have  a  dark- 
colored  bark,  and  their  leaves  with  sharp-cornered  indentations  or 
lobes,  or  else  entire  and  bristle-pointed,  and  a  few  with  entire  oblong 
foliage.  In  addition  to  these  two  botanical  classes  we  may  segregate 
the  evergreen  or  "liv-e"  oaks,  which  botanically  belong  mostly  to  the 
white  oaks,  although  their  foliage  resembles  more  the  black  oaks;  and 
the  "  scrub"  oaks,  which,  mostly  with  black  oak  foliage,  form  spread- 
ing shrubs.  These  latter  grow  on  the  poorest,  driest  soils,  and  can  be 
used  for  covering  barren,  rocky  ridges  and  hillsides. 


A.   WHITE   OAKS 

Q.  alba  Linn.  (285)  is  the  type  While  Oak,  a  noble  tree,  of  wide 
distribution  from  Maine  to  Texas,  the  finest  specimen  tree  where  full 
space  is  allo.-ed  it.  Nothing  more  impressive  can  b(  magined  than  a 
fully  develoiK'd,  broad-crowned  sjK'cimen  of  this  species.  The  bright 
green  foliage  of  narrow,  obtusely  lobed  leaves  is  quite  variable  in  differ- 
ent individuals,  turning  violet-purple  in  the  fall.  The  bark  is  liglit 
gray  and  tlaky.  It  is  a  fairly  rapid  grower,  adapted  to  any  soil,  but  best 
developed  in  good  loam. 

Foliage  of  similar  outline,  but  longer  (five  to  eight  inches),  and 
more  lyre-shaped,  also  whitish  beneath,  is  characteristic  of  the  follow- 
ing three: 


3o8         Trees  for  Shade  and  Ornament 

Q.  macrocarpa  Michx.  (286),  Bur  Oak  or  Mossy  Cup  Oak  (so  cal/ed 
f-om  the  hairy  cup  of  the  acorn),  is  of  more  northern  distribution,  the 
hardiest  of  them  all,  a  verj'  picturesque  tree  of  more  or  less  fan-shaped 
form,  the  bark  darker  than  the  white  oak,  and  corky  on  the  branches; 
Q.  lyrala  Walt.  (287),  Svu:ni>  or  Over-cup  Oak  (so  called  from  the 
cup  enclosing  the  acorn  entirely),  is  of  more  southern  distribution,  from 
New  Jersey  to  Texas,  frequenting  moist  to  swampy  situations;  forms  a 
round-topped  head  with  rather  short  and  somewhat  pendulous  branches; 
Q.  stellata  Wangh.  (288)  (ohtusiloba  or  minor),  Post  Oak,  a  smaller 
tree  (sixty  feet),  with  a  handsome,  dense  round  head,  or  else  with  open, 
straggling  branch  habit,  and  brownish,  fissured  bark.  It  is  adapted 
.0  dry,  rocky,  or  sandy  soil. 

Another  type  of  foliage,  resembling  somewhat  the  chestnut  leaf 
with  short,  rounded  lobes,  and  hence  called  Chestnut  Oak,  is  charac- 
teristic of  the  following  three: 

Q.  Prima  Linn.  (289)  {montcna).  Chestnut  Oak,  Rock  Oak,  of  wide 
distribution,  especially  on  rocky  mountain  slopes,  and  adapted  to  dry 
soils;  a  tree  not  much  larger  than  the  Post  Oak,  with  a  somewhat 
unsymmetrical  broad  crown  and  dark  ridg>-  bark; 

Q.  Michauxi  Nutt.  (290),  Basket  Oak,  Cow  Oak,  of  more  southern 
range  (from  Delaware  to  Texas),  is  a  larger  tree  with  rather  dense 
round  head  and  grows  preferably  in  moist  soil;  large  (four  to  seven 
inch)  foliage,  gravish  underneath,  and  a  ver\-  liglit  g:ay  scaly  bark; 

Q.  Muhknbcrgi  Engelm.  (291),  YdUra.'  Chestnut  Oak,  of  southern 
and  western  range,  is  a  large  tree  with  a  narrow  round  topi)e(l  head, 
particularly  attractive  in  its  handsome  foliage,  wiiich  is  glossy  above 
and  silvery  white  beneath,  and  with  light  gray  flaky  bark. 


B.   BLACK   OAKS 

Q.  vehitina  Lam.  (292)  (tincloria),  Black  Oak,  Quercitron  Oak,  is 
the  type  of  the  black  oaks;  ranging  from  Maine  to  Texas;  a  tall  tree 
with  rather  slender  branches  forming  a  narrow  orK-n  head,  the  leaves 
very  large  (up  to  ten  inches),  very  symmetrically  cut,  dark  green  above 
and  yellowish  brown  l>eneath,  turning  orange;  the  bark  almost  black, 
and  ridgy  (the  inner  bark  orange,  whence  the  name  Quercitron).  It  is 
a  very  rapid  grower,  adapted  to  any  soil. 

Q.  rubra  Linn.  (293),  Red  Oak,  of  as  wide  range  and  of  the  same 
dimensions  as  the  preceding,  but  with  its  stout  spreading  branches 


Black  Oaks 


309 


makes  a  more  symmetrical  broad  crown;  a  large  majestic  tree,  with 
beautiful,  more  deeply  cut  and  large  symmetrical  foliage,  dark  green 
and  glossy  above,  light  green  beneath  and  turning  dark  red.  The  bark 
is  dark  gray,  glossy  on  the  branches.  It  is  a  very  rapid  grower,  most 
adaptive  to  a  variety  of  soils,  and  one  of  the  easiest  and  best  to  plant. 
Q.  coccinea  Muench.  (294),  Scarlet  Oak,  ranging  from  Maine  to  Hor- 
ida  and  Missouri,  is  a  less  handsome  tree  as  regards  form,  with  a  rather 
open  crown,  but  when  the  narrow,  unsymmetrical,  very  deeply  cut, 
bright  green  foliage  turns  to  brilliant  scarlet  in  the  fall,  there  is  nothing 
finer  to  be  seen.     This  tree  is  adapted  to  dry  soils. 

Q.  palustris  Linn.  (295),  Pin  Oak,  native  of  a  smaller  range  than 
the  others,  from  .Massachusetts  and  Delaware  to  Wisconsin  and  .\rkan- 
sas,  also  to  southwestern  Canada.  The  Pin  Oak  is  unique  in  outline, 
the  rather  short,  slender  branches  becoming  pendulous,  while  the  hand- 
some, verj'  deeply  cut,  unsymmetrical  foliage,  turning  bright  flaming 
red  in  autumn,  vies  in  beauty  with  the  Scarlet  Oak.  In  old  age  it 
loses  its  symmetrical  pyramidal  crown  and  becomes  open  and  irregular, 
the  lower  branches  dying  but  persisting,  a  defect  which  can  be  corrected 
by  pruning.  It  is  a  rapid  grower;  stands  swampy  conditions  as  well 
as  dry  soils.    It  transplants  readily. 

Q.  cuneata  Wangh.  (296)  {digitata  or  falcata),  Spanish  Oak,  another 
native  species,  from  New  Jersey  south  and  west,  is  not  quite  hardy 
farther  north;  has  a  peculiar  distinct  foliage  of  subdued  tone,  but  is 
otherwise  with  -it  special  merits. 

.\n  entirely  different  typ"  of  foliage,  namely,  with  entire  margins, 
like  a  willow  leaf,  or  nearly  so,  is  [wssessed  by  four  black  oak  species 
of  more  southern  range: 

Q.  Phellos  Linn.  (297),  Willow  Oak,  is  the  type,  its  most  northern 
range  being  to  New  York,  although  it  ij  hardy  beyond;  a  beautiful 
medium-sized  tree,  with  a  conical  crown  of  slender  branches  and  a 
dense,  dark,  glossy,  fine,  small  foliage  like  that  of  a  willow,  remaining 
green  into  the  fall,  finally  turning  pale  yellow.  It  is  a  swamp  tree, 
but  adaptive  to  drier  soils. 

Q.  imbricaria  Michx.  (298),  Shingle  Oak,  and  Q.  laurifoHa  Michx. 
are  of  more  southern  distribution,  and  with  larger  foliage  of  the  same 
type  as  the  preceding.  Specimens  of  imbricaria  at  Ottawa  are  found 
quite  hardy. 

Q.  nigra  Linn.  (299),  Water  Oak,  with  the  foliage  broader  and  occa- 
sionally lobed  at  the  apex  is  the  tree  commonly  used  as  a  street  tree  in 


I  I 


ttll 


310         Trees  f(jr  Shade  and   Ornament 


Iff 


the  South.     Liko  any  "f  thi-  other  oaks,  it  could  \)v  ust-d  with  advan- 
tagf,  at  liast  as  far  as  N'tw  \'ork. 

The  Live  Oaks,  so  called  Ix-'causc  In-ing  evergreen,  are  confined  to 
the  Southern  and  Southwestern  States,  and  are  not  hardy  north  of  Wash- 
ington. The  type,  one  of  the  most  beautiful  and  characteristic  of  the 
world,  is  — 


Fig.  no. —  English  Oak.     Quercus  Robur  hinn. 

Q.  virginiana  Nutt.  (300)  ivirens),  Live  Oak,  ranging  from  Virginia 
to  Mexico,  hence  not  hardy  nortii;  a  broad  spreading  tree  rarely  over 
seventy  feet,  with  stout,  almost  horizontal  branches,  with  small  entire 
leaves  of  bluish  bve. 

Q.  chrysolepis  Liebm.  (301)  California  Live  Oak,  with  a  golden  hue, 
is  the  handsomest  species  of  the  California  oaks;  probably  never  tried 
in  the  East. 


Black  Oaks 


3" 


Of  Scrub  Oaks  at  least  two  may  l)c  menlioncfl  as  useful  in  covering 
barren  and  rocky  rifiges  and  hillsides,  or  for  low  coppice  and  winrl  mantle 
on  the  outskirts  of  cx|)osed  plantations,  for  they  are  most  hardy  and 
persistent  spreading  shrubs  or  small  trees. 


Fig.  III.  —  Turkey  Oak.     Quercus  Cerris  Linn. 

Q.  ilici/olia  Wangh.  (302)  (Banisteri  or  nana),  Bear  Oak,  covers  dry 
mountain  soils  with  dcn.sc  thickets  from  Maine  to  Virginia  and  west, 
occasionally  growing  to  tree  form  (twenty  feet),  although  usually  a 
shrub  (ten  feet),  with  foliage  of  the  black  oak  type,  dark  green  above, 
but  with  a  grayish  shade. 

Q.  prinoidts  Wiild.  (303)  (httttiilis),  Chincaphi  Oak,  of  even  wider 
range  thar  the  preceding,  a  sjjreading  shrub,  usually  not  over  si.x  feet 


. 


312         Trees  for  Shade  and  Ornament 


X' 

I 


high,  wiih  pretty  foIiaRc  of  tho  white  oak  type,  and  of  similar  hue  as 
the  precediriK,  is  useful  for  the  si>mc  purjxjses. 

The  wealth  of  American  forms  is  so  great  that  there  is  hardly  any 
need  for  introducing  foreigners,  yet  at  least  three  may  be  mentioned  as 


Fig.  112.  —  Italian  Oak.     Quercus  conjerta  Kit. 

occa.sionally  planted  and  having  merits  of  their  own.  Although  be- 
longing bolanically  to  the  white  oaks,  their  bark  is  brown  or  at  least 
dark  and  ridgy: 

Q.  Rohur  Linn.  (304),  English  Oak,  comprising  two  very  similar 
species,  pedunculata  and  sessiliflora,  the  j)rincipal  oak  of  Europe, 
nearly  hardy  to  Ottawa;  a  large  tree  forming  a  broad,  round-tonjH'd, 
spreading  head,  with  glossy  leaves,  oblong  and  somewhat  more  evenly 


Buckthorn 


313 


IoIkhI  than  any  of  our  oaks,  i-xcept  CJicstnut  O  k.  A  larRc  numlK-rof 
nurstT>"iLn's  vit  ii'tics,  tut-ltaved  (Jilici/olia  304(7),  purplcleaveil  {pur- 
puTcscens  and  atropiirpumi,  304/'),  wcipinn  (pendida,  304^,  fastiKiate 
(fastij^iiila,  3041/),  and  many  oUhts  increase  tlie  variety  of  this  muih 
variegated  genus. 

Q.  Cents  l.inn.  (305),  Turkey  Oak,  a  large  tree  from  southern  KuroiK? 
and  Asia,  with  slioit  .spreading  hranilies,  forming  a  l)road  pyramidal 
crown,  has  a  han.lsome  dark  green,  deeply-lolxd,  curled,  almost  pin- 
natifid  foliage.  It  has  tlie  longest  leaf  iieriod  (green  till  Christmas). 
It  is  probably  not  hardy  far  iH-yond  Xcw  York. 

Q.  corfcrla  Kit.  (306)  {l\ui)w>iiai),  a  pretty  oak  from  Hungary  and 
Italy,  but  hiirdy  in  Massachusetts,  with  handsome,  very  longvfour  .0 
seven  inch)  foliage,  dark  gcen  above,  whitish  beneath,  and  as  deeply 
cut  as  the  former,  is  a  very  distinct  form. 


BUCKTHORN 

Rhanmus.  A  genus  of  some  sixty  species,  mostly  native  of  the  tem- 
per..te  zone,  mostly  shrubs,  but  sometimes  growing  into  small  trees, 
contains  a  number  of  ornamental  value  for  their  pretty,  although  mostly 
simple,  oval  foliage.  They  are  more  rarely  employed  than  they  might 
be  in  shrubbeiies  and  as  single  s])ecimcns  for  which  their  shapely  form 
fits  them,  their  usually  black  berry  fruit  adding  to  their  interest.  Most 
of  them,  except  the  evergreen  ones,  arc  hardy,  several  of  them  succeed- 
ing even  in  the  Canadian  Northwest.  They  are  not  choice  as  to  soil, 
but  most  of  them  prefer  a  moist  one,  are  easily  grown,  bear  shade  well, 
and  can  be  used  as  hedges.  Of  the  five  native  ones  three  often  grow 
into  trees;  two  from  the  I'acific  C  .ast,  the  other  is  of  eastern  range. 

R.  Purshiiiua  I).  C.  (307),  ranging  from  British  Columbia  to  Mexico 
and  from  Montana  to  Texas,  is  a  tree  of  medium  height,  from  tl.e  bark 
of  which  the  well-known  Ctisaira  .saf^raihi  is  derived.  If  coUecU  d  from 
i;s  northeastern  range  it  is  hardy  in  the  East,  and  with  its  dark  green, 
iliiptic  foliage  with  wavy  margin,  and  its  red  truit  turning  black,  quite  a 
pretty  ornament. 

R.  Caroliniana  Wait.  (308I,  Indian  Cherry,  of  eastern  distiibution,  is 
quite  similar,  with  a  lustrous  dark  foliage  on  shorter  leaf-stalks,  hence 
somewhat  stiffer. 

R.  alnijolia  L'Hcrit  (30c),  Alder-leaf  Buckthorn,  is  a  low  shrub  (four 
feet)  ranging  across  the  continent  through  Canada  and  northern  United 


W\ 


y 


314        Trees  for  Shade  and  Ornament 

States,  hence  thoroujihiy  hardy,  with  short  oval  scalloped  foliage,  and 
makes  a  kimkI  hed^e  plant. 

The  two  iK-st  known  buckthorns,  which,  like  the  above,  are  either 
shrubs  or  small  (twelve  feet)  trees,  are  two  exotics  from  Europe  and 
Asia,  l)<)tli  entirely  hardy,  even  in  Manitoba: 

R.  cathiirtka  Linn.  (310),  Unrtsliorn,  with  sharply  toothed,  small, 
slightly  scalloix-d  leaves,  is  usually  tliorny. 

K.  Fniiii^iil,!  Linn.  (,^i  i ),  with  <iark  green  shining  foliage  of  the  same 
size  (one  to  three  inch)  as  the  preceding,  but  entire,  forms  a  handsome 
lawn  shrub  or  an  excellent  hedge  (ilant,  with  its  attractive  fruit,  red, 
changing  to  black.  Its  variety  A;,  asplenifolia  (2,11a)  e.xcels  in  its  dis- 
tinctive feathery  foliage. 


WILLOWS 

Salix.    This  is  one  of  the  largest  genera,  with  some  hundred  species 
and  an  endless  numlx-r  of  varieties  of  medium  to  small-sized  trees,  but 
mainly  shrubs,  of  wide  range  in  ail  parts  of  the  world.     Their  orna- 
mental value  is  not  sutViciently  ai)preciated.     The  fine,  graceful  foliage, 
mostly  narrow  elliptical,  gives  t<>  the  willows  a  place  as  an  ornament 
IK'culiarly  their  own,  and  esix-cially  along  borders  of  watercourses  or 
near  water  scenes,  wiicre  they  are  in  their  natural  environment,  they  pro- 
duce a  translucent,  airy  effect  which  heightens  the  lucidity  of  the  water. 
There  is  enough  variety  of  shade  to  be  found  in  the  foliage  of  the 
various  willows  to  iHTmit  most  pleasing  elTects  to  Ix:  produced  by  the 
grouping  of   this  tril)e  alone.     The  bright   yellow  catkins  of   some, 
the  while,  silver\-  "pussies"  of  others,  lend  transient  interest;   while 
the  bright  yellow  and  red  branches  of  some  give  pleasing  winter  effects, 
and  the  weeping  forms  of  others  are  useful  in  their  places.     Transpiring 
profusely,  they  are  useful  in  correcting  swampy  conditions,  and  their 
value  in  binding  embankments  and  sand  dunes  is  well  known.     They 
arc    rapid   growers,    but    usually    short-lived,   and    light-needing.     In 
nature    they  are    generally   found    near    watercourses,   but   they  are 
adaptive  to  dry  soils,  and  most  easily  grown  from  mere  poles,  sprouting 
readily  and  resixmding  lo  pruning.     There  are  unfortunately  a  numl)er 
of  insects  preying  on  willows.     Some  species  of  willows  form  suckers 
undesirably  and    are    -tnerilly    aggn-.-lvo,    j,rop.-,gating    by     broken 
twigs  sprouting.     Althou.uh  iheir  short  life  reduces  their  value,  their 
ready  sprouting  habit  and  exceeding  rapidity  of  growth  permits  ready 


Willows 


315 


replacement;   thus  groups,  planted  for  color  effect,  can  k-  kept  in  good 
form  by  coppice  treatment. 

'I'hf  largest  trees  of  the  genus  come  from  Europe.  1  :.c  hanfisomest, 
iK'st  known  siK-cies  is  — 

S.  Babylanica  Litm.  (312),  Weepiitf^  Willmv,  than  which  there  is  no 
more  Ix-autiful  tree,  with  its  long,  i)endul'>us  l)ranchiets,  like  flowing 
tresses  of  .>ofl  feathery  green.  It  is  an  extremely  raf)i(l  grower  on  any 
soil  hut  a  wet  one;  mott  liable  to  surkering  than  any  other.  In  addi- 
tion to  its  particular  place  by  the  waterside  or  spring,  it  enhances  the 
attractiveness  of  the  rural  home. 

.S'.  alba  Linn.  ,313)  and  its  variety  recalls  (313(1),  White  W'iUow,  from 
ICurope,  is  a  liandsome,  round-headed  tree  of  gcMxlly  si/e,  resembling  the 
former,  but  of  stiiT  habit,  and  the  foliage  silvery-white  beneath.  A  variety 
of  .S'.  vilellina  Linn.,  aurca  (314),  adds  to  the  pleasure  of  a  winter  scene 
by  the  golden  l<>  orange  yellow  color  of  its  branchlets  and  branches. 
Some  other  willows  Injcome  ornamental  because  of  the  color  of  their 
twigs,  by  a  projK'r  combination  of  which  a  pleasing  color  winter  gar- 
den can  be  devised;  such  arc: 

S.fraf^ilis,  Linn.  (315)  (green);  S.  Candida  Flueg.  (316)  (red);  5. 
purpurea  Linn.  (317)  (olive)  and  its  vtxrW-ty  Scliar/enher,qia  (317a)  with 
purple  twigs  and  leaves  like  rosemary;  S.  decipiens  HofTm.  (318)  (red 
and  yellow);  S.  nigra  Marsh  (319)  (dark  purple);  S.  nigricans  Sm. 
hirta  (320)  (soft  gray);  .V.  Voronesh  (321)  (bright  deep  yellow),  a  very 
hardy  tree. 

Several  weeping  varieties  may  be  used  for  small  yards  or  lawns  if 
nothing  better  can  Ix;  found;  such  an-  S.  caprea  Linn.,  pendula  (322), 
the  Kilmarnock  \Villiru<,  one  of  the  most  distinctive  and  graceful,  with 
a  close,  regular  habit,  and  large,  glossy,  abundant  foliage.  This  willow 
is  suitable  for  almost  any  [xisition. 

Japan  furnishes  one  most  distinctive,  semi-pendulous  willow  — 
5.  Xiobe  (322  bis),  the  long,  lithe  rods  of  light  yellow  color  beset 
with  silvery-white  (underneath)  foliage. 

Of  ou.  native  ones,  which  have  been  rather  neglected,  being  small 
trees  or  shrubs,  we  may  mention  as  worthy  of  consideration: 

S.  discolor  Muhl.  (323),  the  commonest,  most  widely  distributed, 
with  upright  branches  and  bright  green  foliage;  and  a  still  -mailer, 
bushy  tree  (si-x  to  fifucn  feet)  or  shrub: 

S.  liicida  Muhl.  (324),  with  yellowish-brown,  highly  polished 
branches,  and  dark  green,  shining  leaves. 


.S'l 


3i6        Trees  for  Shade  and  Ornament 

Other  willows  having  some  desirable  points  are  S.  incana,  Schrenck. 
f  „0  S.  rosmarimfolia  Willd.  (incana),  (326),  a  shrub  of  very  fine  foli- 
age, and  5.  argyrocarpa  Anders.  (327),  a  native  shrub  of  beautiful  satiny 

"^Entirely  distinct  from  all  the  rest  by  reason  of  its  larger,  broad,  dark 
green,  extremely  glossy,  almost  leathery  foliage,  and  its  round,  com- 
pact dense  head,  is  5.  penlandra  Linn.  (328)  {laurtfolta),  Laurel  Leaf 
Willow  from  Europe  and  Asia,  adapted  for  narrow  streets  as  well  as 
small  places,  on  points  which  make  an  accentuation  desirable  and  for 
quickly  screening  out  objectionable  surroundings,  also  for  hedge  work 
and  for  seashore  planting. 


SASSAFRAS 

Sassafras.     5.  officinale  Nees.  (Sassafras)  (329),  a  small,  native  tree, 
of  wide  distribution;  with  roundish  outline;  among  the  best  omanients 
for  small  places,  pleasing  and  picturesque  in  its  variegated  color  effects 
of  foliage,  fruit,  and  bark,  and  its  conical  to  roundish  or  flat  outline, 
with  shelving,   horizontally   spreading  branch   habit.     The   peculiar 
yellowish-reddish  tint  of  the  oddly  lobed  foliage,  turning  reddish  brown 
to  orange  in  autumn,  is  heightened  by  the  reddish  basis  of  the  lea  - 
stalks  the  bright  reddish,  small  fruit,  and  the  greenish  to  yellow  bark 
of  branchlets  and  gray-brown  color  of  stems  and  branches;  the  latter 
peculiarly  furrowed,   giving  it  "an   appearance  of  age   and  adding 
antiquity  to  a  new  place."     Its  yellowish  flower  clusters  in  early  spring, 
about  leafing  time,  and  its  long  leaf  period  are  additional  claims  for 
more  extended  use.    On  dry,  light,  sandy  loam,  in  warm  and  sunny 
positions,  it  develops  best.    Although  with  a  long  tap-root,  it  is  easi  y 
transplanted   when   young.     Being  dioecious,   i.e.,   male  and   female 
trees  separate,  care  should  be  taken  to  secure  the  female  trees.     Oen- 
erally  free  from  insects  and  fungi  but  liable  to  sucker.     Used  m  single- 
ness, or  as  a  filler  in  woodland  planting  and  large  borders. 

TAMARISKS 

Tamarix.  Of  the  sixty  species  found  around  the  Mediterranean,  in 
India  and  Japan,  there  are  three  species  worthy  of  more  attention  than 
they  have  received.  They  are  most  exquisite,  delicate,  shrub-like  trees 
of  airy  appearance,  with  minute,  pale  green  foliage,  slender,  lithe, 


Tamarisks 


317 


swaying  branchlets,  beset  with  minute  pink  or  red,  ethereal  flowers. 
They  are  acclimated  as  far  north  as  Massachusetts.  In  Ottawa  only 
T.amurensis  has  proved  half  hardy. 
They  will  grow  in  almost  any  soil, 
and  are  especially  adaptive  to  sea- 
coasts,  thriving  in  the  salt  spray 
down  to  the  very  shore;  they  are 
rapid  growers  and  free  from  any 
trouble.  To  prescr\'e  their  beauty, 
which  lies  in  the  branchlets  and 
flowers,  frequent,  systematic  prun- 
ing is  essential,  and  this  should 
be  done  at  different  times  accord- 
ing to  the  species  and  its  flowering 
habit,  in  order  to  ensure  the  throw- 
ing out  of  new  branches  and  the 
flowers  appearing  on  them.  Other- 
wise, the  black-barked  trunk  and 
the  stout,  straggling  branches  are 
not  attracti%e. 

The  species,  very  much  alike, 
vary  mainly  in  the  time  of  flower- 
ing, suggesting  the  grouping  of 
the  three  first  mentioned  for  con- 
tinuous flower  effect;  they  also 
group  well  with  fine-foliagcd  coni- 
fers like  cypress  and  cedars. 

T.  pan'ijiora  D.  C.  (A/ricam) 
(33°)>  ^rom  South  Europe  and 
Africa,  is  the  finest,  with  very 
early  (May,  June,  before  leafing), 
bright  pink  flowers,  covering  the 
somewhat  drooping  branches.  Should  be  pruned  soon  after  flower- 
ing, since  the  flowers  appear  on  branches  formed  in  the  previous 
year. 

T.  Germanica  Linn.  (331),  with  terminal  red  flower  spikes,  appear- 
ing in  summer  (July),  i.e.,  on  wood  of  the  present  year,  hence  pruning 
should  Ix-  done  in  spring;  can  be  trained  to  .iny  shape. 

T.    Indica    Willd.    {m),    from    India,    with    terminal    flowers 


Fig.  ti V  —  German  Tamarisk. 
Tamarix  Germanica  Linn. 


'iii 


3i8         Trees  for  Shade  and  Ornament 

appearing  on  the  wood  of  the  year's  season  in  the  fall  (August,  Sep- 
tember). 

T.  Gallica  Linn.  (332),  from  France  and  Spain,  is  distinguished  by 

its  reddish-colored  bark. 


LINDEN,    LIME    TREE   OR  BASSWOOD 

Tilia.     A  small  genus,  with  three  native  and  several  exotic  .sjiecies, 
all  of  northern  distribution;  is  composed  of  tall  and  medium  trees,  of 

rapid  growth,  which  are 
ornamental  in  their  rich 
foliage,  turning  pale  yel- 
low, in  their  upright  form 
and  roundish  outline,  and 
their  graceful  flower  and 
fruit.  They  are  com- 
mendable in  every  respect 
as  street  and  lawn  trees, 
except  that  they  are  some- 
what late  in  leafing  out, 
and  are  liable  to  insect 
depredations.  They  are 
adaptive  to  a  variety  of 
soils,  not  too  dry,  and 
even  to  wet  ones;  are 
easily  transplanted,  and 
vigorous  sprouters  from 
the  stump.  In  winter, 
the  thick,  reddish  buds 
and  recurved  branchlets 
lend  a  bright,  cheery  apn 
pearance  to  the  branch 
system. 

T.    Americana     Linn. 

(334),  the  common  Basswood,  the  largest  of  all,  with  less  compact,  open 

habit,  and  rounded  form,  with  very  large  but  sparse  foliage,  forms  a 

satisfactory  street  tree. 

r.  Enropaea  Linn.  (335)  (split  up  Into  several  species)  is  superior  on 

account  of  its  smaller,  more  graceful,  and  denser  foliage,  more  regular. 


Fig.  114.  —  French  Tamarisk. 
Gallica  Linn. 


Tamarix 


Linden,  Lime  Tree  or  Basswood       319 

compact,  conical  form,  and  flowing  outline,  as  well  as  by  its  more 
extended  leaf  period  and  its  more  fragrant  flowers.  Unfortunately,  it 
is  troubled  by  insects,  borers,  and  leaf  blight. 

T.  pubescens  Ail.  (336),  Downy-leaved  Basswoood,  of  southern  distri- 


FiG.  115.  —  Indian  Tamarisk     Tamarix  Indica  Wilid. 

bution,  is  the  one  native  species,  which  in  size  of  foliage  and  other  desir- 
able points  most  nearly  resembles  the  former. 

T.  heterophylla  Vent.  (337),  White  Basswood,  a  medium-sized  tree, 
also  of  southern  distribution,  but  hardy  as  far  north  as  Ottawa,  with 
somewhat  larger,  oblong,  or  somewhat  lieart-shapcd  foliage,  downy  to 
whitish  Ix'neath,  mnttled  yellow  «d  green  in  autumn,  is  the  most  pleas- 
ing of  the  native  species,  but  it  is  as  yet  little  planted. 


v 


i  ■! 

ill 


IN 


320         Trees  for  Sliade  and   Ornament 

T.  argentca,  D.  C.  (338),  the  HurojK-an  Silver  Linden,  with  silvery 
under-side  of  leaves,  is  of  highly  ornamental  value  for  color  etTect. 

T.  dasyslyia  Stev.  (338  bis)  (eiicliloni),  from  the  Crimea  and  other 
parts  of  Asia  and  Eastern  Euro|K%  is  most  distinctive,  with  tough  leath- 
ery leaves,  dark  glossy  above,  lighter  green  below,  fit  for  planting  along 
dusty  roads,  as  it  is  not  affected  by    '.  •   lust.     It  is  hardy  in  Ottawa. 

There  are  several  varieties,  with  r>  .1  and  yellow  twigs  and  variously 
shaped  leaves. 

OSAGE   ORANGE 

Torylon.  T.  pomifcrum  Raf.  (339)  {Madura  aurantiaca),  a  small 
TO.  1-headed  tree,  of  southeastern  range,  but  acclimated  all  through  the 
East,  and  hardy  in  New  England,  is,  outside  of  its  value  for  hedges, 
for  which  it  is  admirably  adapted,  mainly  of  botanical  interest  for  its 
shiny,  rather  coarse,  bright  green  leave-;,  its  large,  orange-shaj^ed,  yel- 
lowish-green fruit,  its  yellow-tinted  bark,  and  thorny  tangle  of  branches. 
It  might  be  used  advantageously  for  a  lawn  tree  on  small  plots,  where, 
by  proper  pruning  (annually  heading  it  back),  it  may  be  trained  into 
a  gigantic,  round  bush  of  striking  apfX-'arance.  It  is  adaptive  to  various 
soils,  a  rapid  grower,  without  insects  or  other  troubles. 


ELMS 

Ulmus.  A  genus  with  eighteen  species  'if  world-wide,  mostly  north- 
em  distribution,  and  a  large  number  of  varieties  or  forms.  Tall  to 
medium-sized  trees  and  shrubs,  as  a  rule  pleasing  in  outline  and  branch 
habit,  with  simple  but  luxuriant  foliage  of  long  leaf  iwriod,  without 
striking  autumn  features  (pale  yellow).  They  are  adaptive  to  various 
soils,  but  prefer  rich,  well-v  atcre<l  soils,  even  swamps;  are  moderately 
shade-enduring  and  readily  transplanted.  .Aside  from  the  fact  that 
they  are  subject  to  many  insect  troubles,  leaf  destroyers,  scale,  borers, 
and  fungi,  they  are  otherwise  among  the  best  lawn  trees  and  shade 
trees,  but  should  always  be  given  ample  s[)ace  to  permit  the  develop- 
ment of  their  characteristic  form. 

U.  Americand  Linn.  (340).  H'/n/r  Kim,  the  finest  in  form,  is  the  best 
known  and  most  popular  native  species,  especially  when  it  develops  its 
unique,  vase-shaped,  broad-topjK-d,  over-arching  crown  with  gracefully 
drooping  branchlets.  It  is,  iiovever,  olien  veiy  variable  in  form,  but 
always  vigorous  and  courtly  in  appearance,  with  wide-spreading  crown 


El 


ms 


321 


and  an  outline  which  can  only  be  spoiled  by  pruning.  The  early  flower 
and  fruit,  an  interesting  round  green  samara,  appearing  before  leafing, 
misleads  the  uninitiated  into  the  belief  that  it  is  an  early  leafer;  it  has, 
however,  a  long  leaf  period.  It  is  tolerably  shade-enduring,  thriving 
best  on  deep,  moist  soils,  easily  transplanted,  and  a  very  rapid  and 
hardy  grower.  It  is  best  fitted  for  single  positions,  and  if  planted  in 
avenues  should  be  spaced  widely,  not  less  than  thirty  feet  apart,  for  in 
thirty  to  forty  years  it  becomes  a  large  tree. 

The  American  Elm  is  readily  distinguished  from  the  following  by  its 
forking  habit,  each  branch  dividing  into  two  equally  strong  branches. 

U.  campestris  Smith  (341)  (suberosa),  English  Elm,  native  of  Eurc->e, 
is,  next  to  the  White  Elm,  most  frequently  planted;  is,  however,  entirely 
different  and  less  striking  in  form,  with  a  stiller,  more  compact,  and 
less  spreading  habit.  It  is,  nevertheless,  a  noble  tree,  of  large  dimen- 
sions, with  denser  foliage  than  the  White  Elm,  and  having  the  advan- 
tage of  possessing  a  much  longer  leaf  period  into  the  fall,  and  also  being 
less  liable  to  insect  troubles.  Lately,  however,  an  enemy  has  developed 
in  the  form  of  a  leaf-destroying  .\phis,  which  singles  out  this  European 
species,  leaving  the  neighboring  ones  unmolested.  This  elm  is  some- 
what given  to  suckcring  and,  at  least  in  Toronto,  it  fills  out  its  in- 
terior with  a  dense  growth  of  watersprouts.  It  is  best  used  for 
grouping  and  as  a  street  tree. 

There  are  a  number  of  varieties  and  forms  worthy  of  notice,  one  of 
which  is  suberosa  (341a),  a  beautiful,  small  tree,  with  vigorous,  but 
small,  dark  foliage  of  long  duration,  and  interesting,  corky  bark. 

Of  native  elms,  similar  in  habit  to  the  European,  upright  in  growth, 
but  s.nailer  and  requiring  less  space,  should  be  mentioned: 

U.  fulva  Michx.  (342),  Slippery  or  Red  Elm,  with  a  magnificent 
foliage,  larger  than  that  of  t^'c  White  Elm,  and  of  rough  surface,  boine 
on  long,  somewhat  pendulous  branches,  which  usually  form  an  open, 
flat,  and  less  graceful  crown. 

U.  data  Michx.  (343),  Wahoo  or  Winged  Elm,  a  small,  round-headed 
tree,  of  southern  distribution,  fit  only  for  southern  planting. 

U.  raccmosa  Thomas  (334),  with  corky-winged  branches,  and  foli- 
age whitish  beneath,  has  the  advantage  of  being  adapted  to  drier  soils 
than  the  others,  and  is  also  fairly  hardy  into  Manitoba. 

Of  the  other  exotics  are  to  be  mentioned  the  often  planted  European 
and  Asiatic: 

U.  scabra  Mill.  (345)  {montana),  Wych  Elm,  a  medium-sized  tree, 


322 


Choice  of  Plant  Material 


with  oblong  or  roundish  outline,  of  vigorous  growth,  with  luxuriant, 
large,  glossy  foliage,  adaptive  to  jxwrer  soils,  and  free  from  insect 
troubles.  Of  the  many  nursery  forms,  the  weeping  variety,  pettdula 
(345a),  Camperdffwn  Elm,  with  a  spreading  habit,  is  one  of  the  best  to 
make  arbors. 

U.  parvifolia  Jacq.  (346),  a  small  tree  to  shrub,  from  China,  hardy 
to  Massachusetts;  with  very  attractive  foliage,  with  small  leaves,  lus- 
trous above,  hairy  below,  and  somewhat  leathery;  with  a  very  long  leaf 
period;  is  one  of  the  most  attractive  trees. 


V 


A   LIST   OF   SHRUBS 

Originally  it  had  not  been  the  intention  of  the  author  to 
extend  the  scope  of  this  book  beyond  discussing  the  methods 
of  taking  care  of  trees  after  they  are  secured. 

It  was  the  publisher  who  caused  the  addition  of  the  preced- 
ing chapter  and  tree  list,  and,  although  the  author  pleaded 
comparative  ignorance,  he  was  still  further  inveigled  into 
compiling  the  following  brief  enumeration  of  ornamental 
shrubs,  with  notes  on  their  special  uses  and  requirements. 

This  list  of  over  200  shrubs  covers  the  majority  of  species 
in  cultivation,  and  reference  to  the  best  known  hybrids. 

As  we  have  seen,  the  distinction  between  trees  and  shrubs 
is  not  always  hard  and  fast.  While  the  single  stem  and 
branching  crown  are  characteristic  of  a  tree,  a  number  of 
stems  from  a  common  root-stock  are  characteristic  of  a 
shrub.  Some  tree  species  may,  however,  be  trained  to  as- 
sume the  shrub  habit,  or  this  may  take  place  naturally  under 
certain  climatic  or  soil  conditions,  and  vice  versa.  For  the 
landscape  gardener,  the  general  effect  of  the  whole,  rather 
than  the  species  habit,  is  determinative.  Hence  in  nursery- 
men'j  catalogues,  the  low  tree  species  which  are  apt  to  grow 
in  bush-like  form  are  classed  as  shrubs. 

As  regards  adaptation  to  climate,  situation,  and  soil,  shrubs 
as  a  rule  prove  hardier  than  trees  on  account  of  their  low 


List  of  Shrubs 


323 


stature,  which  keeps  tlicm  under  the  protection  of  snow, 
nearer  the  warming  influence  of  the  ground,  and  more  out 
of  reach  of  searching  winds.  Their  habit  of  suckering  from 
the  root  is  also  of  value,  replacing  more  readily  the  lost  stems 
or  parts.  Indeed,  when  dealing  with  half-hardy  shrubs,  it 
is  often  wisest  to  cut  them  down  to  the  ground  in  the  fall, 
when  the  roots  next  spring  will  reestablish  iheiu.  These 
half-hardy  species  whose  annual  shoots  are  apt  to  be  killed 
back  from  one-quarter  to  one-half  require  in  a  northern 
climate,  such  as  that  of  New  York  or  New  England,  or  Can- 
ada, sheltered  situations  or  artificial  protection  to  enable 
them  to  stand  the  winters.  A  common  method  is  to  bend 
them  down  to  the  ground,  weighting  them  with  stones, 
when  they  will  be  covered  by  snow,  and  winter  well.  Con- 
cerning this  question  of  hardiness  we  refer  again  to  Chap- 
ter III. 

The  low,  spreading  habit  of  shrubs  furnishes  protection 
to  the  soil,  keeping  weeds  out,  and  reducing  evaporation, 
while  their  shallow  root  system  adapts  them  to  shallower 
and  poorer  soils. 

Most  shrubs  are  tolerably  free  from  insect  and  fungus 
pests,  and,  if  they  are  attacked,  are  more  readily  protected. 
They  are,  as  a  rule,  easily  propagated,  but,  to  secure  the  best 
persistent  effects  in  form,  foliage,  and  flower,  the  applica- 
tion of  the  pruning  knife  is  essential.  Their  more  or  less 
ready  resjjonse  to  this  treatment  makes  them  specially  avail- 
able for  hedges  or  borders. 

Besides  adaptation  to  climate,  soil,  and  exposure,  shade- 
endurance  is  a  point  of  \'alue  in  many,  making  them  useful 
as  underbrush. 

Form  is  of  less  moment  than  in  trees,  as  it  can  be  more  or 
less  readily  corrected,  but  size  is  of  im])ortance,  when  group- 
ing is  attempted;  for  while  some  species  may  be  kept  down 


324 


Choice  of  Plant  Material 


in  size  to  desired  profxsrtions,  others  are  too  vigorous  to  be 
so  treated,  ind  the  natural  habit  must  be  recognized.  We 
shall  call  tall  shrubs,  those  which  attain  naturally  a  height  of 
over  lo  feet;  medium-sized,  those  between  6  and  lo  feet; 
low  or  small,  those  from  3  to  6  feet;  and  dwarfs  those  lower 
than  these  last  dimensions. 

In  grouping,  the  smaller  kinds  arc,  of  course,  placed  in 
front,  the  taller  toward  the  center  of  the  group. 

From  the  ornament  point  of  view  not  only  the  foliage  effect 
in  shape  and  color  during  the  leafy  season,  and  the  color 
effect  of  the  stems  in  winter  is  of  importance,  but  in  a  large 
number  the  flower  and  fruit  is  the  great  attraction. 

In  regard  to  flower  not  only  the  character,  size,  color,  and 
profusion,  but  particularly  the  time  and  persistency  of  the 
blooming  should  be  taken  into  consideration  in  the  choice 
of  shrubs. 

The  great  art  of  the  landscape  artist  is  to  blend  or  to  con- 
trast foliage  in  groups  or  masses,  and  to  secure  a  succession 
of  harmonious  flowers  in  groups  by  skilfully  combining 
shrubs,  which  in  habit,  size,  and  character  of  flower  harmon- 
ize but  differ  in  the  time  of  blooming. 

In  some  shrubs  the  flowers  ai)pear  in  early  spring  either 
before  or  with  the  arrival  of  the  leaves,  while  in  others  they 
do  not  come  until  midsummer,  and  a  very  few  species  do 
not  flower  until  the  fall,  thereby  becoming  especially  valu- 
able. To  assist  selection  we  have,  therefore,  given  the  time 
of  flowering,  which,  of  course,  varies  slightly  according  to 
season  and  latitude.  When  no  statement  is  made,  the 
usual  time.  May,  June,  is  understood. 

Flowers  appear  either  singly  or  in  bunches  and  clusters 
of  varying  shapes;  in  flat  "cymes"  like  the  common  Yarrow 
and  Viburnum;  or  in  elongated  pendent  "racemes,"  like  the 
Bleeding  Heart;  or  in  long,  dense,  or  loose  "spikes,"  like 


List  of  Shrubs 


323 


the  Mullein  or  Dragon's  Head;  or  in  broad  and  elongated 
heads,  like  the  Sunflower  and  Crimsor  Clover;  or  in  many- 
branched  "umbel,"  like  the  Carrot;  or  in  loose  "cymes," 
like  the  Apple. 

Every  shade  of  color  that  is  wanted  may  be  secured,  thanks 
to  the  many  varieties  and  hybrids  produced  by  the  horticultu- 
rists, who  are  also  responsible  for  the  so-called  double  flowers. 

In  shape  of  flowers,  several  forms  can  be  recognized  of 
which  the  following  may  serve  as  types:  flat  like  the  Dog- 
wood; rose-like  like  the  Rose  and  most  of  the  fruit  trees; 
bell-shape  like  the  Huckleberry;  tubular  like  the  Honey- 
suckle; funnel-shape  like  the  Syringa,  and  butterfly-shape 
like  the  Pea. 

In  size,  we  have  tiny  blossoms  which  become  eflfective  only 
by  being  clustered;  small,  delicate  ones,  which  by  their  pro- 
fusion are  showy,  and  large,  broad  or  long,  more  or  less 
coarse  ones,  which  in  their  singleness  are  decorative. 

In  these  points,  as  elsewhere,  similarity  is  mostly  desirable 
in  selecting  for  groups,  contrasts  being  diflScult  to  devise  so 
.  that  they  do  not  jar. 

In  managing  shrubs,  not  only  for  their  form,  but  for  their 
blossom,  the  pruning  knife  is  most  important.  As  we  have 
seen  under  Tamarisk  (p.  316),  the  annual  flowering  can  be 
influenced  by  appropriate  pruning  practice,  based  on  the 
recognition  of  the  flowering  habit.  Yet  care  is  necessary 
not  to  overdo  the  pruning  and  thereby  destroy  the  character 
of  the  shrub;  regular  annual  pruning  of  moderate  extent 
must  be  the  rule.  It  should  also  be  understood  that  sun- 
light is  inducive  of  flowering,  while  shade  retards. 

It  should  be  kept  in  mind  that  many  shrubs,  like  the 
spiraeas,  daphnes,  and  other  beautiful  species,  after  a  few 
years  blooming,  are  more  easily  and  severely  killed  back  in 
severe  winters,  notwithstanding  their  entire  hardiness  (as 


326 


List  of  Shrubs 


species),  in  healthy  condition.    They  should,  therefore,  be 
renewed  by  layering  or  else  be  replaced. 

In  the  following  inumeration,  the  writer  has  largely  de- 
ix;nficd  on  the  information  found  in  Mr.  Lucius  D.  Davis' 
volu  ne  on  "  Ornamental  Shrubs  "  as  well  as  on  other  rec- 
ognized authorities  and  nursery  men's  catalogues,  supple- 
mentin,':  this  by  his  own  personal  studies  in  the  field. 

An  appropriate  classification  of  shrubs  from  the  dcv.ora- 
tivc  ix)int  of  view  is  difficult,  if  at  all  i)ossible,  since  foliage, 
flower  anrl  fruit  combine  in  making  decorative  value.  We 
have  therefore  choa-n  a  mixed  alphabetical  and  botanical 
scheme,  groujiing  together  the  seven  or  eight  families  which 
furnish  the  bulk  of  ornamental  shrubs,  and  following  these 
groups  by  a  merely  alphabetical  list  of  the  single  genera 
containing  ornamental  shrubs.  Shrubs  which  come  from  gen- 
era containing  tree  species  have  for  the  most  part  been  dis- 
cussed in  pag.'s  213-322.  Taj  numk-rs  in  parenthesis 
preceding  the  species  n-.:m_'  coincide  with  thr-e  of  the 
species  described  in  the  following  pages. 


LIST   OF 

Abf.lia  (35)  spathulata,  (36)  ru- 
pcstris,  (T,(ki,  grandijlora),  (37) 
scrrata,  (38)  trijlora. 

Acacia,  see  Trees.    B. 

.AcKR,  see  Trees.      C. 

.^iscuLUS,  see  Trees.     B. 

Albizzia,  see  Trees.    B. 

Alm's,  see  Trees.     C. 

Althea,  see  under  Hibiscus. 

-Amelanthif.r,  see  Trees.     C. 

AxiORPHA     (90)   fmlkosa,    (71) 
canescens. 

Andromeda     (i)    polifolia,    (2) 
arbor ea. 

Ar  \UA,  see  Trees.    B. 


SHRUBS 

Azalea  (3)  arborescens,  (4)  cal- 
endulacea  (lutea),  (5)  Cana- 
densis (Rhodora),  (6)  midiflora, 
(7)  Vaseyi,  (8)  viscosa,  (9)  Pon- 
tica,  (10)  mollis  (Sinensis), 
(11)  Indica,  {iia,antoena),(iib, 
Kampjeri). 

Baccharis  (144)  hamilifoUa. 

Berberis  i^As'i  Canadensis,  (146) 
vulgaris,  (1460.  atroptirpurea), 
(147)  Thunbergii,  (148)  Amu- 
rcnsis,  (148a,  Japonica),  (149) 
Japonica,  (150)  Wallichiana, 
(151)  ilicijolia. 

BuTNERiA,  see  Calvcantius. 


List  of  Shrubs 


3^7 


Calluna  (12)  vulgaris. 
Calycanthus      (152)    floridus, 

(Bulneria),  (153)  glaucus,  (154) 

Ictvigatus,  (155)  occidenlalis. 
Caragxna,  see  Trees.    B. 
Carpi*  us,  sec  Trees.    C. 
Cassavdra        (13)       calyculata 

{Chanuedaphne). 
Celastri-s  (155  bis)  candens,  (155 

tris)  orbicularis. 
Cercis,  see  Trees.    C. 
Cha     '•:daphne,    see     Cassan- 

Ci    ..N'ANTHUS,  see  Trees.    C. 
Cladrastis,  see  Trees.    B. 
Clethra     (14)    alnifolia,    (15) 

acuminata,  (16)  arborea. 
CoLUTEA    (92)   arborescens,    (93) 

cruenta  {orientalis). 
CoMPTONiA,  see  Myrica. 
CoRNUs,  see  Trees.    C. 
CoRYLUS  (156)  Americana,  (157) 

Avellana  purpurea,   (157a,  la- 

ciniata). 
CoTONEASTER     (98)   horizontalts, 

(99)  mif  ophylla,  (loo)  Simoni, 

(loi)  frigida,  (102)  multiflora, 

(103)  nummularia. 
Crat^gus,  see  Trees.    C. 
Cytisus  (g4)  scoparius,  (95)  ca- 

pitatus  (95a,  nigricans),   (956, 

albus),  (95c,  purpureus). 
Daphne   (158)   Mezereum,  (159) 

cneorum,  (i6c;  laureola. 
Desmodium    (96)     penduliflorum 

(Sieboldi),  (97)  Japonicum. 
Deutzia     (126)     scabra,     (126a, 

Jlore-pleno),{i26b,candidissima), 

(127)  crenata  purpurea,  (127a, 


Walereri),  (128)  parvijlora,  (i2g) 
gracilis,  (130)  Lemoinei. 

DiERViLLA  (39)  ftorida  {rosea), 
(39a,  nana),  (39A,  Kosteriana), 
(39c,  alba),  (39^,  Candida),  (y)e, 
amabilis),  (40)  grandijiora  ar- 
borea, (41)  floribunda  {multi- 
flora),  (41  bis)  Eva  Rathke. 

El-bagnus  (67)  argentea  {Cana- 
densis), (68)  longipes,  (69) 
umbellata,  (70)  angustifolia 
{hortensis),  (71)  macrophylla, 
(72)  reflexa. 

EvovYMUS  (161)  .'ImertcawMi, 
(162)  atropurpureus,  (163) 
Europctus,  (164)  Japonicus, 
(165)  radicans,  (1650,  vane- 
ga/a),  (166)  alatus. 

Exochorda  (104)  grandiflora. 

FoRSYTHiA  (73)  suspensa  For- 
tunei,  (74)  viridissima. 

Fraxinus,  see  Trees.    B. 

GARDEmA      (167)      jasminoides, 

(168)  /jrtd't  (168a,  Fortunei), 

(169)  radicans,  (170)  nitida. 
Halesia    (hokrodendron)     (135) 

tetraptera,  (136)  diptera. 
Hibiscus  (171)  Syriaca  {Althcta 

frulex). 
Hydrangea     (121)     paniculata, 

(i2ifl,  grandiflora),  (122)  ^Mcr- 

cifolia,  (123)  vestita  pubescens 

(124)  hortensis,  {\2j\a,  Otaksa), 

(125)  Thunbergi  {serrata). 
Hypericum    (172)     Kalmianum, 

(173)    aureiim,    (174)    Moseri- 
anum,   (175)   prolijicum,   (176) 
densiflorum. 
Itea  (120)  Virginica. 


328 


List  of  Shrubs 


Kaluia  (17)  lalifolh'.  dS)  iingus- 
tifolia,  (19)  glauca  'poli/olii), 
(19a,  nano). 

Laburnum,  see  Trees.     B. 

Lagerstrckmia  (177)  Indua. 

Lespedeza,   see   under    Desmo- 

DIUM. 

Leucothoi;  (20)  Catcf^'tri,  (21) 
racemose,  (22)  acuminata,  (23) 
axillaris. 

LiGUSTRUM  (75)  vuli;are,  (76) 
cn'olifoliiim,  (77,  Amnrense 
(Ibota),  (78)  Japonuiim,  (79) 
Quihoui,  (80)  Sincnse. 

LoNiCERA  (42)  ciliata,  (43)  C(rr!<- 
lea,  (44)  involucrala,  (45)  06- 
longi/olia,  (46)  Hildehrandiana, 
(47)  Tatar ica,  (48)  fragrantis- 
sima,  (49)  Slandislii,  (50) 
spinosa  (Albcrti),  (50  it's) 
periclyminum. 

Magnolia,  see  Trees.     C. 

MALAfHODENDROV,  SCC  StUARTIA. 

Mohroi>endron,  see  Halesia. 
Myrica  (178)  Carolinensis,  (179) 

asplenifolia  (Comptonia),  (180) 

Co/e. 
Neillia,  see  Spir.ia. 
Opulaster,  see  Spir.ka. 
OsiRYA,  see  Trees.    C. 
Paulowma,  see  Trees.    C. 
Philadelphus    (131)    coronaria, 

(132)    Gordonianus,    (133)    J«- 

odorus      igrandiHorus),      (134) 

microphyllus. 

PHYSOCARPrs.  sec  SPIR/EA. 

PlERis  (24)  Mariana,  (25)  ligiis- 
Irina  (Xolisma),  (26)  fioribunda, 
(27)  Japonica,  (28)  .nt'/w/a  rwAra. 


PiHUS,  see  Trees.     C. 

Pruvus,  sec  Trees.     C. 

RHOboni  \DRON,  (29)  maximum, 
(30)  Catawbiensr,  1  <i)  punc- 
tatum,  (32)  Ponticum,  {^^)  ar- 
bor eum. 

RlIODORA,  sec  A/ALEA. 

RuoiM)TYPUS  (105)  kerrioides. 

Rhus,  sec  Trees.     B. 

RiBES  (181)  alpinus,  (i8ia,  au- 
reum),  (182)  aureum,  (iSji/, 
tcnuijolium),  (183)  Americanum 
(foridum),  (184)  speciosum. 

RoBiMA,  see  Trees.     B. 

Rosa  (106)  riigosa,  (107)  rubigi- 
nosa,  (108)  lucida,  (109)  5f/»- 
^'fra,  (no)  multiflora,  (iioa, 
Dawson  iana),  (in)  W^/c/rw- 
ra;a«a. 

Sambucus  (51)  Canadensis,  (52) 
racemosa,  (53)  pubens,  (54) 
nigra,  1540,  aurea),  (54^,  /i/ci- 
niata),  (54f,  variegata). 

Sassafras,  see  Trees.    C. 

SHEPHERDrA  (8i)  argcntca,  (82) 
C(j«a(/c«5i.v. 

SoPHORA,  see  Trees.     B. 

Spir.f.a  (112)  opiilijolia,  •  ?")  m- 
lici/olia,  (114)  tomentosa.  1115) 
Thunbergi,  (116)  priinifnlia  fiore 
plena,  (wj)  trilahata,  ^II8  z-aw 
Houttei,  (119)  Bumalda,  1119(2, 
Anthony  Waterer),  (1196,  Jtt- 
perba). 

Stuartia  (185)  pentagyna,  (186) 
\'tr^if!ic{z  i \I iilachodeudroH^ , 

Styrax  (137)  graiidijhra,  (138^ 
Americana,  (139)  pulvcriilenta, 
(140)  Japonica,  (141)  Ohui^ia. 


1 


H 


cam 


Family 


i^V 


Symphoricarpi -^  (55)  racemosus 
(56)  vulgaris. 

Sympukos  (142J  tinctffria,  (143) 

.     cratir^.iidex. 

SvRiN(.A  vulgaris  (  8,3a,  alha), 
(83ft,  graiuliflnra),  (S^r,  Marie 
Lr^rayr),  (8,v/,  Cfuir'-s  V), 
(83/-,  (V;</r/n  -/y),  (S.l/,  ■!/ '- 
</awf  Casimir  Perricr),  (S.^a'- 
CV«;?o),  (84)/'»Tik,i,  (85)  C/// 
nensis    (Rothoniagctisis),     (8f>) 

Japonica,    (89)  Jositra,    (8ga, 
Lemonei) 


Taviarix, 

L'  Trees. 

c. 

ViBUR     UU 

^yt  lantanoides 

41- 

/(»/i  »<'«), 

:;8)     /. 

'  '-Jg", 

50' 

O^i,      ,. 

,9". 

>). 

,  '.0) 

<ietiluiun> 

(61) 

II    rifoliu   t, 

(62)        "/ 

rmeph 

'/hw/, 

(f-  ;) 

tometi!  sum       / 

turn. 

(64) 

Sifhol.ti, 

(65) 

J   nus, 

(66) 

Ijintdna. 

\iTBX  (187) 

.1.    '« 

Castus. 

Wi      vuA,  s 

DlKRMLLA. 

XoLiSMA.    25    livustnna. 

ZeNOBIA  (        1  *  ''(•CttfSO. 


HEATH    J     MILY    ^ERICACEAE) 

This  larj?e  lily  rn^  is  ov  r  'went  I'enera  nd  more  than  three 
hundred  and  ty  m  .1  if  whi- h  at  ast  somt'  ;  venty-five,  with 
many  hybri  icsenT  at  ntion.  ihryn  \.  am  l  atfai'ive  flower 
show,  with  ;  ur-  to  five-tDOthi  tl»iv\ers,  si  -dimr  >r  bvil -shaped  (in 
some  cases  tw  -lippt'd),  gent' auy  white  •  p  ik,  v.  ving  in  size  and 
found  in  small  '•  or  larger  clusters.      Well  1  ;  examples  are  aza- 

leas and  rhodon     (Iron.    The  fruit  is  general!  inconspuuous  cap- 

sule.    Many  of  ;   .m  an         rjjrcen. 

They  range  from  thr     .imiicst  small   border  shrubs  with  tiniest 

■bust,  large-flowered,  and  large-foliaged 
k         les  are  most  useful  for  edging  borders, 
r  evergreen  shrubs,  and  for  winter  and  early 
■scent  species  from  Italy  furnishes  the  briar- 
f  the  various  genera  are  often  mixed  up,  lieing 
lUowing  eleven.     Both  in  formal  and  in  mfor- 
gs  the  different  members  of  the  family  may  be 
ined  for  succession  of  blossom  and  color, 
lions  and  partial  protection   (during  January 
ry)  in  unfavorable  situations  are  needful  ft  r  best  success, 
h  'u>.me  of  those  in  the  list.     Indeed,  in  general  the  members 
ily  do  not  seem  to  be  easily  handled, 
meda.     (See  also  Pieris,  Cassandra,  Zenobia,  Leucothoe,  whicn 
L)e  grouped  under  Andromeda.) 


he 


leaves  and  fli' 
rhododencl  ^n 
combining     cli 
spring  effti  t  i 

root    ipes. 
lateiy  split  up 
■nal  rituralistit 
38t  <£- tisiactoril  V 
av    ifele  soil  cos 
and  I 

a!    1: 

<i 


til 

J 


List  of  Shrubs 


330 

This  genus  furnishes  one  excellent  ornamental  shrub,  a  dwarf 
indigenous  to  the  northern  temperate  zone  and  ound  >"  ^he  turfy 
hillocks  of  northern  bogs,  from  Newfoundland  to  Alaska  and  ^uth. 

A.  polifolia  Linn,  (r),  WUd  Rosemary,  rarely  over  twelve  to  fifteen 
inches  in  height,  with  very  fine,  linear  leaves,  dark  g'-ee"  above  and 
white  beneath,  knd  tiny,  delicate  white  to  pink  flowers  m  noddmg 
clusters  (spring).     Most  suitable  for  borders. 

A.  irborea  (2),  see  Oxydendron,  Tree  List  C.  ,        .  ,.     ,„j 

Azalea.  A  genus  with  a  large  number  of  spec.es  and  vanet.es  and 
endless  hybrids,  native,  from  the  ^Mediterranean  and  from  As.a;  many 
only  fit  for  hot-house  use;  prized  for  their  wealth  of  eariy,  vanously 
IVd  beautiful  flowers  (April  to  July).  AH  but  one  are  decduous^ 
very  shade-enduring,  hence  fit  for  under-shrubs,  but  they  thnve  al«>  m 
sunny  and  moist  places  (ravines  and  borders).  Vanous^ s.zes  ^n  be 
had.  For  remarks  regarding  their  treatment,  see  under  l^^oMr^^ 
Three  or  four  native  species  and  two  or  three  exot.cs,  from  wh  h  many 
varieties  are  derived,  are  adapted  for  outdoor  use  For  best  effects, 
rich  soil  is  desirable,  ample  moisture,  and  Partial  shade. 

*  A.  arborescens  Lursh.  (3),  the  native  Tree  Azalea,  f  «•"  P^^^J/ 
vania  to  North  Carolina,  is  the  largest  of  the  family  (twelve  to  twenty 
feet),  with  less  brilliant  (white  to  reddish)  flowers  than  the  othe.^,  the 
latesl  in  blooming.    It  is  the  easiest  to  cultivate  m  any  s.tuat.on.    It 
fits  well  in  the  center  of  a  group  of  its  congeners. 

*  A.  cdendrdacea  Michx.  (4)  iUUea),  the  Flame  Azalea,  nat.ve  o 
the  Atlantic  Coast,  is  next  in  size  (six  to  fifteen  feet),  and  one  of  the 
most  showy,  with  a  profusion  of  yellow  to  scarlet  or  orange-red  flowers 
(Mav,  Tune),  which  justify  its  name.  ..    .   u  •  „ 

A.CanaLsis  Ktze.  (5)  iRhodora),  is  probably  the  hard.es  being 
native  from  Newfoundland  south,  a  low  shrub  (one  to  two  feet)  with 
glaucous  foliage  and  early,  rose-purple  flowers  in  variegated  shades, 
appearing  before  the  leaves.  No  success  in  Ottawa. 
'a  nLflora  Linn.  (6),  the  native,  common  Wood  Honeysuckle,  or 
Pinxter,  from  Maine  to  Texas,  grows  to  a  height  of  six  eet  or  mo«. 
with  pink  flowers  appearing  in  profusion  before  rnd  with  the  lea^es,  m 
Mav,  and  is  perhaps  the  most  adaptive;  hardy  mto  Canada. 

A.  VaseyiKehL.  (7),  from  the  mountains  of  North  Carolma,  only 
lately  introduced  into  gardens;  in  cultivation  may  attain  ^  hejght  of 
four  to  six  feet.    It  excels  in  its  delicate  pink  or  rose-colored  flowers, 
♦  Stars  denote  the  most  desirable  forms. 


Heath  Family 


331 


and  is  the  earliest  bloomer  (April,  May),  blossoming  before  the  foliage, 
which  in  the  fall  assumes  a  rich,  vinous  red  or  crimson  color. 

A.  viscosa  Linn.  (8),  the  native  Swamp  Honeysuckle,  or  Pinxler, 
from  Maine  to  Texas;  with  white,  fragrant  flowers;  the  latest  bloomer 
of  all;  is  fit  for  wet  spots. 

Of  exotics  there  are  at  least  three  worthy  of  attention: 

A.  Pontica  Linn.  (9)  {gandavensis?),  from  E  rape,  with  many  vari- 
eties, which  excels  in  its  large  glossy  leaves,  profusion  of  large  but  deli- 
cate, varicolored  flowers  (May,  June),  which  are  single  and  loublo, 
and  by  its  pleasing  outline,  three  to  five  feet  high.  It  is  only  half  hardy. 
A  long  line  of  hybrids  with  American  species  gave  rise  to  the  so-called 
Ghent  Azaleas. 

A.  mollis  Blume.  (Sinensis)  (10),  the  favorite  of  the  Japanese, 
with  its  spreading  habit,  three  to  eight  feet  high,  most  profuse,  large, 
flame-colored,  very  early  flowers  (April,  May),  and  pleasing  foliage, 
silvery  gray  beneath;  also  with  many  color  varieties. 

In  addition,  a  large  number  of  hardy  hybrids,  giving  every  choice 
of   color  in   flowers,   have   been   produced   from   the  one  evergreen 

species  — 

A.  Indica  Linn.  (11),  which  is  itself  tender  to  half  hardy. 

*  A.  amcena  Lindl.  (iia),  one  of  the  choicest,  a  new  introduction,  is 
hardy  as  far  as  New  York,  as  low  and  spreading  as  .1.  mollis,  and  as 
early  a  bloomer  (April,  May),  with  a  profusion  of  large  rich  crimson  (to 
purple)  blossoms,  and  dense  foliage  of  small,  glossy  lea\  .,  turning 
bronze  in  winter.  It  is  best  used  singly,  or  in  hedge  line,  or  in  front  of 
rhododendrons  and  kalmia. 

A.  Kampferi  Rehdcr  (116),  with  pink  to  orange-red,  early  flowers, 
is  hardy  into  New  England. 

Calluna  (Erica).  Heath.  Of  the  very  large  numU-r  of  species  and 
varieties,  mostly  of  southern  climates,  with  small,  dainty  foliage  and 
flowers,  only  one  is  hardy  enough  with  us  to  be  growr.  in  the  open, 

namely: 

C.  vulgaris  Salisb.  (12),  the  Scotch  Heather,  one  to  three  feet  high, 
with  handsome,  terminal  racemes  of  tiny  pink  flowers  (July  to  Septem- 
ber). It  grows  in  poor,  sandy,  and  peaty  soil,  and  is  well  adapted  to 
massing  in  borders. 

A  number  of  varieties  of  this  species,  with  varied  color  of  flowers, 
double  blossoms,  golden  and  silver-colored  shoots,  are  worthy  of  atten- 
tion. 


I  'J 


List  of  Shrubs 


332 

Cassandra  (Chamselaphne).  C.  "'^''"^  u  temperate  zone;  with 
a  thoroughly  hardy  and  P-^'yJ^■f,tfd^:e,t  e'r^rcen,  attractive 
leathery  foliage,  rusty  ^^^  ^"-^^/J"^  covering 

by  virtue  of  its  very  early,  small  ^^  ^e Jl^^w^      P  j,,  leaves.    It  is 
the  branches,  in  one-sided  -cemes  from   ^^^^f/;  ^^^^.^jjes. 

^,^  for  borders,  -<!  ^da,-  /;,  ^  Pr/^M^^^^^^ 

riethra.  C.  calnifoha  Linn.  (14),  •^^''«      J^  j  ^^^  f^^^,^ 

Alder),  .0  called  from  the  ^J^^^^^^f ^^^ll^^^^^^^^         feet);  with 
native  (fron.  Maine  to  Florida)  small  fj^^'^  ^  bark, 

slender,  straight  «  ^  ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^  creamy 

becoming  purple,  with  bnght,  glossy,  la  f,  ^^^ 

from  the  axils  of  the  leaves,  wnii  fl^^ering     Although  a  plant 

^,,  «he„  «ar,y  an  »*;-''-=  «;;!''::":  d™,  pK»r  ^,ac«,  and 

°:  :r:x,:"  "n%:s:„:  i^.^  -  ™a... .  b„*.  a„d 
'"?:-::r:^r;s:de..,«...™s.c--^^^^^^^^^^^ 

(,5),  which  sometimes  assumes  tree  form,  has       sui^ 

has  the  European,  C.  arborea  Ajt^  d^')^  American,  low  to  high, 

Kalmia.    Laurel.    A  8^=""^  ^^  <^^"  ^^f^'if^^^v   evergreen  foliage 
shrubs,  highly  ornamental  by  reason  of  their  gb^y,         g^^  .^^  ^^^^ 

and  very  large,  showy  A--- J*^  ^  ^J^  "^  h^de-enduring,  and 
massed.    -They  are  very  hardy  an^-^^^^^^^ 
easily  propagaed     They  can  be  re       y^^^^^^^^^  ^^^,^   j^   ,^, 
*K.  latijoha   Lmn.  (17),  Mountain  '    .    ^  ,,  it  sometimes 

grows  to  a  heiRht  of  forty  Icct  «.i  ^^j  j„„j. 

thrives  from  Canada  to  Georfim^     '' " '"^^  which  is  b™d  and 
,iv.  of  the  genus,  ->\''»t'"'';''' 'tfTJ!    o1  many  shades,  fr<,n, 

"TZ^^^  Linn.  (.8),  S*«f  ^»'".  «?  ^^^V'  "*  P-'P'^ 

crimson  flowers  (Jane,  JflyX  «"d  , ,,  „,,     purple, 

^-  ?"'°  ■'.m:;'*,  ':  "a^UT'*  ^n;  to  three  feet,,  and 

S^^Iretn't^wS  «  e,M  inches,  variety  of  the  6rst,  «.»a, 

fit  for  borders  and  small  clumps. 


Heath  Family 


333 


Leucothbe.  Four  species  of  southern  North  American  heathers, 
small,  graceful  shrubs;  nearly  or  entirely  evergreen,  with  small,  pinkish 
to  white,  bell-shaped  flowers  in  racemes,  and  appearing  early.  They 
require  moisture  and  partial  shade. 

*  L.  Catesbcei  Gray  (20),  although  found  on  streams  fron.  Virginia 
to  Georgia,  it  is  a  hardy  dwarf  (two  to  three  feet)  with  long,  arching 
sprays  of  broad,  dark,  glossy  foliage  on  slender,  recurved  branches, 
bronzing  in  winter,  larger  than  the  leaves  of  the  rhododendron,  with 
which  it  groups  well.  Its  pretty  pure  white  flowers,  in  racemes  from 
the  axils  of  the  leaves  (.\pril.  May)  emit  an  odor  not  agreeable  to  every- 
body. The  purple  hue  of  the  buus  adds  to  its  beauty.  It  forms  a 
most  excellent  ground  cover. 

*  L.  racemosa  Gray  (21),  one  of  the  most  desirable  of  the  family, 
growing  in  swamps  from  Massachusetts  to  Texas,  along  the  coast;  is 
a  hardy,  low  shrub  (three  to  four  feet),  with  rich,  glossy,  green,  oval, 
but  deciduous  foliage;  with  very  fragrant,  elegant,  white,  waxy  flowers 
(.\pril,  June)  in  long  terminal  racemes,  and  with  a  bright  red  bark 
which  adds  to  its  attractiveness. 

L.  acuminata  Don.  (22),  the  Titi  of  South  Carolina  and  Florida, 
and  L.  axillaris  Don.  (23),  the  first  a  larger,  the  second  a  smaller  plant 
than  the  preceding,  with  their  flowers  from  the  axils  of  leaves  and 
branches,  jxissess  hardly  any  points  of  superiority. 

Pieris  (Andromeda).  Of  the  ten  or  twelve  species  distributed  over 
North  America  and  western  Asia,  three  native  -./id  one  exotic  are 
especially  useful  for  their  very  early  flowers,  '.s  a  rule  white  and  bell- 
shaped,  of  chaste  and  delicate  beauty  in  d'ooping  racemes.  The  ever- 
green foliage  of  some  species  is  also  oman-cntal.  The  natives  are  very 
hardy  and  thrive  best  in  partial  shade.  All  are  to  be  used  like,  and 
in  combination  with,  others  of  the  family. 

P.  Mariana  B.  &.  M.  (24),  Stagger  Bush,  two  to  four  feet;  native 
from  New  England  to  Florida  and  Texas;  in  wet,  low  ground;  is  decidu- 
ous, with  large  (two  to  three  inches),  oval  leaves,  and  white  to  pale 
pink,  bcll-shapcd  flowers  in  graceful,  nodding  racemes,  ap{)caring 
(April,  May)  before  the  leafing  on  the  old  wood. 

*  P.  floribunda  Benth  &  Hook.  (26),  Mountain  Fetter-bush,  another 
compact  and  well-rounded,  but  smaller  evergreen  (two  to  six  feet);  native 
from  the  mountains  of  Virginia  to  Georgia,  and  very  hardy.  Of  this 
species  Davis  writes:  "No  one  should  think  of  planting  any  consider- 
able number  of  urnanienlat-  shiubj  without  including  this  ciiarming 


il 


*r, 


334 


List  of  Shrubs 


nlant  "     Being  evergreen,  with  single  stems  from  the  ground  densely 
c^e red  wi^farge,  gloss;  foliage,  it  is  handsome  all  the  year  round 
tstern.in^flo.er  clusters  are  pendent  and  much  branched,  and    he 
flovvlrTuds,  which  appear  prominent  above  the  foliage  dunug  wmter. 

^Z^^^-  Bon.  (^7)  is  a  dwarf  similar  -he  Pr.e^g,  ^ 

(March  to  May),  wUh  deep  pink  flowers  and  evergreen  leaves 
^  ^Idendron.    This  g.nus  of  large  shrubs    of  mountam  habUa, 
native  and  from  Asia,  furnishes,  in  some  two  hundre.1  ^peces  and  m 
Various  hybrids,  all  with  evergreen  foliage  and  great  ^anety  of  showy 

flowers  a  long   .ries  of  the  most  striking  and  satisfactory  ornamentals. 

'^t    :g  cln  take  their  place  for  naturalisUc  planting  -  m  the  proper 
1  rnfnrtunatelv   they   are    not   easily   propagated.     Ihey   are 

£  :;f  ^i  andTuat^  Uuiring  a  coo,,  light,  porous,  well-wa.erj.d 

de^p  if  possible  rich  loam  soil,  and  thrive  best  in  shady  and  protcted 

Son    although   if  properly  trained  or  selected  and  well  wate  ed 
hev  will  do  well  in  sunny  spots.     Like  most  of  their  congeners  of  the 

nLllX  H-  and  heU  clay  soil,  which aa-  ,x>or w- conduc  or. 

are   unsuited  to  them,   unless  property   improved.    They  appear 

'ThtTol^c's";e  onlv  half  hardy  to  tender,  and  most  of  the 

J    vaTetie^^^^  .leHved  from  them  by  l^ropean     orticu  U- 

rists  share  this  tenderness.     In  order  to  be  certain  of  succe..,  it  i.  neces 

ar V  o  i  sure  that  the  mother  stock  is  of  the  hardy  American  species, 

S  The  pllnting  is  carefully  done,  and  that  the  'o-ion  .s  ^l^^;  X; 

or  shady  at  least  through  the  hot  part  o     he  ^^y'^^^^ 

they  are  grateful  for  watering  and  for  mulching.     Fhev  arc  cspec.a.iy 

'r  maling  on  corners,  or  on  l.rders  of  driveways   an.    for  under 

planting.     The  seed  pods  should  be  removed  m  July  to  favor  the  flower 

'"Tr.:::lur-(3,),  Ce.  Unr.,  is  the  hardiest  native,  found 
from  Nova  Scotia  south;  grows  to  a  height  of  over  twenty  feet  some- 
times even  in  tree  form  to  forty  feet,  with  dark,  glossy,  nch  green 


i 


Heath  Family 


335 


foliage  and  a  profusion  of  broad  di  to  2-inch!)  pink  to  white  flowers 
sprinkled  with  yellowish  and  orange  spots,  the  latest  in  blooming 
(June,  July),  but  persistent.  This  being  the  largest,  it  makes  a 
good  background  and  winter  effect  for  gardens. 

*  R.  Catawbiense  Pursh.  (30),  Mountain  Rose  Bay,  from  the  southern 
mountains,  a  smaller  shrub,  three  to  six  feet  high  (although  sometimes 
reaching  a  height  of  twenty  feet),  with  small,  oblong  leaves,  rounded  at 
both  ends,  and  clustered  at  the  tips  of  the  branches;  and  bright,  lilac- 
purple  flowers  (June),  as  large  as  those  of  the  preceding;  is  equally 
hardy,  and  adapts  itself  to  adverse  situations.  It  is  the  one  chiefly  used 
in  hybridizing  for  American  use. 

R.  pimctatum  Andr.  (31),  so  called  from  the  dots  on  the  underside 
of  the  foliage,  is  also  a  small  shrub,  from  alpine  ranges.  It  is  the  earli- 
est and  most  persistent  bloomer,  bearing  dense  clusters  of  funnel- 
shaped,  greenish-spotted  flowers  (May  to  August). 

The  species  used  in  Europe,  but  to  be  avoided  as  not  hardy  with  us, 
are:  — 

R.  ponticum  Linn.  (32),  from  Asia  Minor,  recognized  by  the  ellip- 
tical leaves,  pointed  at  both  ends,  and  pale  underneath;  and 

R.  arhoreum  Smith  {^z),  the  largest,  twenty  to  thirty  feet,  from  the 
Himalayas,  recognized  by  lanceolate  leaves,  cordate  at  base  and  acute 
at  tip. 

A  very  large  number  of  hybrids,  with  flowers  of  all  shades,  are  in 
the  market,  just  as  in  the  case  of  the  related  Azaleas;  in  selecting  which 
the  question  as  to  the  mother  stock  used  should  be  carefully  looked 
into. 

Xolisma.  X.  ligustrina  Britt  (25),  Privet  Andromeda,  also  native 
from  Canada  to  Florida,  and  west,  growing  in  swamps;  is  larger,  a 
bushy,  compact,  deciduous  shrub  (five  to  ten  feet)  and  a  still  earlier 
bloomer,  with  a  profusion  of  flower  bunches,  and  with  oblong  leaves  in 
panicles,  assuming  a  brilliant  fall  coloring. 

Zenobia.  Z.  speciosa  Don.  (34),  from  the  South  Atlantic  shores,  a 
small  (two  to  four  feet)  shrub,  with  upright,  arching  branches;  is  one 
of  the  latest  blooming  heathers  (July),  with  a  profusion  of  dainty,  wa.xy, 
white  bells,  resembling  the  lily  of  the  valley,  blossoming  for  a  long  time 
on  the  previous  year's  branches;  its  pale  green,  oval  foliage  adding  to 
its  attractiveness.  Its  light  foliage  gives  it  value  as  an  accent  shrub, 
and  it  is  fine  for  border  work.    It  thrives  well  in  sandy  and  peaty  soil. 


'-m 


35(i 


List  of  Shrubs 

HONEYSUCKLE   FAMILY   (CAPRIFOLIACE/E) 


Some  two  hundred  an<l  sixty  species  in  ten  genera  are  known  of 
which  some  thirty  are  more  or  less  commonly  planted.  W  uh  tubular 
long-necked,  or  narrow -throated  flowers,  well  known  m  the  climbing 
Honeysuckle  or  Caprifolium,  or,  in  much  reduced  form,  or  urn-shaped, 
as  in  the  Elderberry,  or  bunched  in  small  clusters  or  heads,  as  m  the 
Snowball;  the  fruit  a  colored  berry. 

Most  honeysuckles  are  garden  shrubs  and  are  used  extensively, 
especially  the  Asiatic  Laniceras,  for  this  purix.se,  in  large  masses  rather 
than  singly,  for  which  thev  are  less  adapted  in  form.  As  a  rule  they 
make  good  fillers,  and  the  climlx=rs  may  Ix.-  usc-d  for  soil  cover,  espe- 
cially on  banks.     Most  of  them  are  adapted  to  poor  soils. 

Abelia  A  genus  from  Asia  and  from  Mexico,  atTords  a  numlx-r  of 
low  Ci'ergreen  shrubs,  most  of  which  are  fit  only  for  ..«//,.r«  plantmg, 
to  be  used  somewhat  like  rhododendron,  except  that  they  prefer  sunry 

Sites  * 

A  spathulata  S.  &  Z.  (35),  a  much-branched  shrub  from  Japan,  is 
probably  the  hardiest  farthest  north;  having  elliptic  leayc-s  with  purple 
edges;  the  flowers,  in  pairs  and  very  abundant,  white,  with  light  yellow 
blotches  at  the  throat  (early  spring). 

A.  rupestris  Lindl.  (36),  from  China,  a  well-shaped  bush,  with  grace- 
fully arching  stems,  five  to  eight  feet  high,  has  small,  dark,  glossy  leaves, 
tardily  deciduous  in  the  north;  and  tubular  flowers,  pale  rose  color 
without  and  white  within,  flowering  late  (July,  August),  but  persisting 
a  long  time.  A  variety,  grandifora  (36a),  with  larger  flowers  (one 
inch),  continuously  from  June  to  November,  is  said  to  be  more  robust, 
and  hardv  to  semi-hardy  as  far  north  as  New  \ork 

.1.  serrata  S.  &  Z.  (37),  is  less  hardy  than  the  former,  with  very 
large,  pale  red,  single  terminal  flowers  (early  spring). 

A.  tripra  R.  Br.  (38),  with  yellow  and  pinkish  terminal  flowers  in 
threes  (fall);  is  one  of  the  lx;st  bloomers. 

Diervilla  (Weigelia).  The  Bush  Honeysuckles  or  Wageh^s,  a  genu.s 
with  ten  sf^ecies  from  Europc>,  Asia,  and  native,  furnishing  u  numbc-r  of 
vigorous,  broad  shrubs  (five  to  eight  feet),  prize.l  for  their  flowers 
white,  pink,  or  red,  and,  to  a  less  extent,  for  their  bright  foluige.  In 
g,Hens  ..nd  small  places,  massed  and  carefully  chosen  for  their  color 
effect,  they  may  l)e  kept  in  trim,  standing  shears  well. 

*  D.prida  S.   &  Z.  (39)  (rosea),  from  China,  is  one  of  the  most 


Honeysuckle  Family 


337 


generally  planted,  a  syringa-like  hardy  shrub  (six  feet),  of  straggling 
tendency,  with  numerous  slender  branches;  covered  in  early  spring 
(May)  with  a  profusion  of  deep  rose-colored  flowers  gracefully  festooned 
from  the  axils  of  leaves  and  ends  of  branches.  Several  dwarf  forms 
adapted  to  small  places,  D.  nam  (39a),  D.  Kosteriana  (396),  and  vari- 
eties with  white  flowers,  D.  alba  (39c)  and  D.  Candida  (sgd),  are  in  exist- 
ence. 

A  variety  amabilis  (3qe),  of  more  robust  habit  and  larger  size, 
excels  in  its  conspicuous  red  flowers  which  blossom  late  when  few 
shrubs  are  in  bloom. 

*  D.  grandiflora  S.  &  Z.,  var.  arborea  (40),  from  Japan,  another 
late  bloomer,  with  large,  pale  yellow  or  rose-colored,  honeysuckle-like 
flowers  and  large  leave  ■;.  often  achieves  tre"  form. 

D.floribunda  S.  &  Z.  {multijiora)  (41),  also  from  Japan,  perfectly 
hardy,  has  rich,  dark  crimson,  small,  fuchsia-like  flowers  and  dark- 
colored  foliage. 

A  group  of  hybrids  of  uncertain  derivation  furnish  a  long  line  of 
more  or  less  distinct  ornamental  value.  Among  them  the  most  striking, 
free  bloomer  is  Eva  Rathke  (41  bis)  a  very  hardy,  erect  shrub  with  dark 

red  flowers. 

Lonicera,  the  true  Honeysuckle.  This  is  a  genus  with  over  one 
hundred  and  forty  species,  not  less  than  sixty  of  which  are  under 
cultivation;  of  all  the  honeysuckle  family  having  the  most  northern 
distribution  on  the  three  continents;  is  of  course  entirely  hardy.  The 
species  of  this  genus  are  mainly  familiar  through  the  well-known  vines 
or  climbers,  although  they  also  furnish  some  ornamental  shrubs,  decora- 
tive in  flower  and  berry.  They  are  shade-enduring  and  frugal,  and 
invaluable  for  border  and  mass  planting.  Four  species  of  native  honey- 
suckle shrubs  are  specially  hardy. 

L.  ciliata  Muhlenb.  (42),  Fly  Honeysuckle,  a  Canadian,  with  spread 
ing  habit,  three  to  five  feet  high,  with  heart-shaped,  oblong  leaves,  is 
attractive  by  virtue  of  its  light  red  berries,  which  persist  long;  the  green- 
ish-yellow flowers  (April,  May)  are  interesting,  if  not  conspicuous. 

*/..  ccerulea  Linn.  (43),  another  upright  shrub  of  northern  distri- 
bution; a  dwarf;  has  blue  to  purple,  persistent  fruit;  and  showy  yellow 
flowers  in  profusion. 

L.  involucrata  Banks.  (44),  also  a  dwarf,  from  Lake  Superior  west, 
has  shiny,  dark  purple  to  black  fruit,  and  yellow  flowers  tinged  with 
red  (May,  to  July),  and  large,  bright  green  leaves. 


338 


List  of  Shrubs 


L.  obhngi/olia  Hook.  (45),  a  larger  shrub  (to  five  feet),  is  of  value 
in  its  adaptation  to  boggy  conditions,  and  ornamental  in  its  very  large 
(two  to  five  inches)  leaves,  and  dark  purple,  long-enduring  fruit,  fol- 
lowing the  yellowish-white  flowers. 

Of  exotics  some  eight  or  ten  species  are  cultivated. 
L.  Hildebrandiana  Coll.  &  Hemsl.  (46),  from  Burma,  and  there- 
fore perhaps  only  half  hardy,  is  the  largest;  a  climbing  shrub,  evergreen 
in  its  native  country;  it  excels  by  reason  of  its  large  glossy  leaves  (four 
to  six  inches),  and  very  large  and  remarkable  (seven  inches)  crimson 
flowers.    It  is  as  yet  little  used. 

*  L.  Tatarica  Linn.  (47),  a  hardy  Russian,  with  a  number  of  vari- 
eties; is  one  of  the  best  known  and  most  satisfactory  shrubs  (six  to  ten 
feet)-  with  its  numerous,  slender  stems,  and  a  profusion  of  beautiful, 
small,  yellow  flowers,  with  rose-tinted  to  crimson  base  (April  to  June), 
followed  (July,  August)  by  striking,  translucent,  and  very  persistent 
coral,  cherry  red,  orange,  or  dark  berries. 

L.  fragranlissima  Carr.  (48),  from  China,  is  only  half  hardy,  but 
one  of  the  best,  most  showy  species  (tive  to  eight  feet),  having  leathery, 
nearly  evergreen  leaves,  and  flowering  very  early  (March),  before  or 
with  the  foliage,  large,  white,  light  yellow,  or  pink,  very  fragrant  flowers, 
and  scarlet  fruit. 

L.  Slandishi  Carr.  (49),  also  from  China,  resembles  the  preceding, 
except  that  the  flowers  are  cream  white,  opening  in  'rte  winter  and 
early  spring. 

*  L.  spinosa  Jacq.  (50)  (Alberti),  from  Sil)eria  (Baikal  Sea  or  Turk- 
estan), very  hardy,  a  dwarf  (two  feet),  with  slender,  drooping  branches, 
is  quite  distinct,  with  long,  narrow  to  linear,  bluish-green  leaves,  and 
very  large  and  very  fragrant,  pinkish-purple  flowers  (May,  June), 
followed  by  vinous  berries.     It  is  well  ada[)ted  for  rock  gardens. 

One  of  the  best  climbers  in  this  c;roup  is  L.  peridyminum  (50  bis), 
the  Sweet-scented  English  Honeysuckle. 

Sambucus.  Elderberry.  There  are  some  twenty  species,  all  of 
northern  distribution  and  hence  hardy  shrubs;  of  a  not  verj'  attractive, 
rather  coarse,  open  form,  and  of  straggling  habit,  but  very  hardy  and 
frugal,  most  satisfactory  in  exposed  and  in  shady  situations.  They  are 
very  ;trong  sprouters.  .Mthough  rather  coarse  in  form,  they  are  not 
without  ornamental  value,  with  their  com})ound  leaves,  sm.ill,  white 
flowers  in  broad  clusters,  and  especially  their  colored  berries.  They 
are  most  effective  when  massed,  and  when  used  as  accent  shrubs. 


Honeysuckle  Family 


339 


They  are  particularly  useful  in  waste  places,  neglected  comers,  and  in 
seaside  planting,  f'     undershrub  as  well  as  in  damp,  shady  woods. 

Two  American  and  one  European  sjx'cies,  with  a  number  of  vari- 
eties, deserve  attention: 

*  S.  Canadensis  Linn.  (51),  the  common  Elder  and  the  hardiest, 
deserving  more  extended  use  (five  to  ten  feet);  of  wide  distribution 
from  Canada  south;  with  showy,  white  flowers  in  flat  cymes  (early 
summer),  and  with  dark  purple  to  black  fruit  (August,  September). 
The  fruit  is  used  in  pies  and  in  making  the  elderberry  wine. 

*  S.  pubens  (53),  and  its  almost  exact  European  counterpart  — 
*S.  racemosa  Linn.  (52),  differs  from  former  only  in  having  red 

berries,   the   American    species,   however,   being   perhaps   the    more 

graceful. 

S.  nigra.  Linn.  (541,  the  European  Black  Elder,  so  called  from  the 
pu.plish  black  or  dark  green  berries,  is  a  much  larger  bush  (twenty 
to  twenty-five  feet),  well  rounded  and  with  compound  foliage,  which 
keeps  very  persistently  green,  like  that  of  most,  exotics. 

Three  fine  varieties  of  this  species,  only  half  liardy  but  rapid  in  recov- 
ery, are  commendable: 

*  5.  aurea  (54a),  the  best  golden  yellow-leaved  ornament,  especially 
when  kepi  :  rimmed  to  low  form  and  in  masses; 

*  5.  U' :  Ufa  (546),  with  a  deeply  cut,  sparsely-leaved  foliage,  fine 
for  massing     id  borders; 

S.  variegata  (54c),  with  whxw  markings,  is  a  curiosity. 

Symphoricarpus.  There  are  ten  species  of  which  two  are  native  and 
have  great  value  for  covering  dry,  gravelly  banks  and  heavy  soils,  and 
for  underbrush,  being  very  shade-enduring,  their  suckering  habit  tending 
to  keep  their  growth  dense.  Their  sm.)oth,  broad  foliagj  and  their 
waxy,  berr)'-like  fruit,  hanging  on  through  winter,  are  their  chief  orna- 
ments. They  are  largely  used  in  combination  with  ^hododen^ron  and 
other  evergreen  shrubs,  when  the  berries  set  off  well  against  the  dark 
foliage.  The  two  American  -p.-c'cs  are  the  best,  and  tliey  are  usually 
planted  together. 

5.  racemosus  Michx.  (5?;),  Waxberry,  a  low,  graceful  shrub,  with 
slender  branches,  rose-colored  flowers,  and  white,  waxy  fruit  in  clusters; 

.v.  vulgaris  Michx.  (56),  Indian  Currant,  Coral  Berry,  a  more  com- 
pact bush,  which  excels  in  having  jjersistent  foliage,  bright  green  t'nged 
with  reddish-purple,  and  very  showy,  dark  red  berries. 

Viburnum.    Snowballs.    \  large  genus,  over  a  hundred  species  of 


340 


List  of  Shrubs 


small  trees  or  me<li.tm-sized  shrubs,  twenty  North  American,  of  which 
several  are  very  satisfactory  and  widely  planted  ornamentals,  bemg 
hardy  to  the  Canadian  Northwest.  They  are  vigorous  growers  and 
attractive  in  foliage  (lobed  or  otherwise  interesting),  flower  (white 
heads),  and  fruit  (colored  berries),  although  some  species  are  somewhat 
straggling  in  habit.  They  thrive  in  partial  shade,  and  heavy,  especially 
peaty  soil  and  swampy  ground,  but  can  adapt  themselves  to  other  situ- 
ations. They  are  best  adapted  for  rough  border  work  m  masses  to 
bring  out  the  foliage  effect. 

♦  V  lantanoides  Michx.  (57)  (alni/olium),  Hobble  Bush,  a  low  to 
medium-sized  bush  from  the  northeastern  United  States  (five  to  ten 
feet)  with  very  large,  crinkled,  broad  (three  to  eight  inches)  leaves,  and 
crimLon  fruit  turning  black  or  purple;  is  one  of  the  most  ornamental  of 
the  native  Viburnums. 

V.  Lentago  Linn.  (58),  Shcepberry  or  Nannyberry,  a  larger  shrub 
(ten  to  thirty  feet),  sometimes  tree-like,  of  similar  range,  with  large, 
ovate,  pointed  leaves,  and  large,  showy,  white,  terminal,  flat,  flower 
heads  (May,  June),  followed  by  •  red-stemmed  clusters  of  dark  blue 
berries,  persisting,  in  striking  contrast  with  the  yellowish  autumn  foli- 
age.   A  variety  with  variegated,  white  and  yellow,  leaves  is  one  of  the 

better  class  of  curios. 

*  V.  Opdiis  Linn.  (59),  Cranberry  Bush,  is  one  of  the  best,  a  medium- 
sized,  vigorous  shrub  (five  to  ten  feet),  and  a  variety,  V.  slerUe  (59a), 
the  old-fashioned  Sturwbdl,  whicl.  has  its  ball-like  flower  heads  all 
composed  of  sterile  flowers,  while  the  speci(  s  has  the  sterile,  star-shaped 
flowers  only  on  the  outer  rim  of  the  Hat  cyme.  The  greatest  ornament 
of  the  species  lies  in  the  bright  sea  let-red  berries,  whid  [wrsist  mto 
winter;  but  the  variety  is,  of  <    urse,  without  this  ornament. 

V.  dentalum  Linn.  (60),  Arrow-wood,  of  the  same  size  as  the  former, 
sometimes  higher,  with  shii-ply  dentate  leaves,  is  another  native  swamp 
shrub,  from  New  Brunswick  south;  of  upright,  compart  growth,  most 
adaptable  and  vigorous,  with  large,  showy  flower  clusters  (May,  June), 
and  dark  blue  to  purple  berries,  hanging  long  into  winter. 

V.  acerifolium  Linn.  (61),  Dockmackie,  a  low  (five  feet),  slender 
shrub  from  the  Ni  them  States,  with  handsome  purple  fall  color,  is 
well  adapted  for  ground  cover,  and  under  trees. 

Of  exotics  there  are  at  least  Use  worthy  of  allerition. 

*  V.  macrocephdum.  Hort.  ^62),  the  half-hardy,  Chinese  Snowball, 
its  tree  form  growing  to  a  height  of  twenty  feet,  the  sterile  variety  excel- 


Olive  Family 


341 


ling  in  its  larger  flowers  (one-inch)  in  inamense  balls  (eight  to  ten  inches), 
and  its  dark  gret-u,  persistent  foliage. 

*  V.  lomentosum  var.  plicatum  Maxim.  (63),  ♦:  e  Japanese  Snow- 
bill  a  very  compact,  vigorous,  medium-sized  sht  u  (eight  feet),  with 
esiK-cially  fine,  rich,  dark  green  foliage  on  brown  twigs,  and  very  i^er- 
sistent,  solid  "snowballs,"  larger  than  the  common  (two  and  a  half  to 

three  inches).  ... 

V  Suboldi  Miq.  (64),  another  Japanese,  stout  shnib,  with  a  heavy 
dark  green,  shiny,  semi-evergreen  foliage,  is  well  adapted  for  combina- 
tion with  evergreen  shrubs. 

♦  V.  Tinus  Linn.  (65),  Laurentinus,  from  southern  Europe  (six  to 
nine  feet),  with  oblong,  shiny,  n<crgreen  leaves,  rose-tinted  to  white 
flowers  in  terminal  clustt-rs,  appearing  very  late  in  autumn,  or  c  .-n  in 
winter  (in  the  greenhouse),  and  dark  blue  to  black  fruit. 

V.  Lantana  Linn.  (66),  Hobblchiish  or  Rowan  Trn;  from  northern 
Europe,  a  tall  shrub  (ten  to  twenty  feet);  with  large,  strongly  v.ined, 
crinkled,  darker  foliag.-  like  lanUnoides;  flat,  dense  cymes  of  small, 
white  flowers,  and  bright  red  (changing  to  bluish-black)  fruit.  A.  lapted 
to  any,  even  dry  limestone  soils. 


OLIVE   FAMILY    (OLEACEAE) 

This  contains  several  genera  of  high  ornamental  value;  most  of 
which  bear  small,  funnel-shaped  flowers  (well  known  in  the  common 
lilac),  single  or  in  bunches  of  varying  size,  followed  by  a  fruit  like  the 
familiar  olive,  generally  inconspicuous,  but  sometimes  ornamental. 
A  grayish  cast  of  foliage  characterizes  a  number  of  the  members  of 
this  family,  and  several  species  are  evergreen. 

Elaagnus.  Oleaster.  .\  genus  with  about  fifteen  species  of  small 
trees  and  shrubs  from  Europe,  Asia,  and  .\merica;  mainly  of  value  for 
color  effect  because  of  the  gray  to  silvery  cast  of  their  foliage,  although 
some  of  them  are  evergreen.  They  are  hardy  and  frugal,  and  especially 
fitted  for  scacoast  planting.  The  fruit  is  edible  and  is  used  for  pre- 
serves.   They  are  best  employed  in  border  work. 

*  E.  argetitea  Pursh.  (67)  (Canadensis),  our  native  northern  Silver 
Tree,  is  often  only  a  shrub  of  straggling  habit  (eight  to  ten  feet),  with 
striking,  large  (two  inches),  sharp-pointed  leaves,  silvery-white  on  both 
sides,  and  pretty,  yellow,  fragrant  flowers  (May,  June),  and  silvery 


342 


List  of  Shrubs 


I: 


fruit.    It    is   given    to   suckering,   which    is,    however,  prevented   or 
impeded  if  planted  in  turf. 

*  E.  hngipes  Gray  (68),  the  "  Goumi "  from  Japan,  is  perhaps  the 
best  omameniai  olive;  a  small,  hardy  (?)  tree,  generally  growing  in 
shrub  form  (five  to  eight  leet),  with  numerous,  slender,  reddish-brown 
branches.  The  thick  leaves  are  dark  green  above  and  silvery-white 
to  brownish  beneath,  the  fragrant  flowers  are  yellowish  white,  'ivered 
with  brownish  scales, and  the  cranberry-like,  edible  fruit  (July),  bright 
red  with  white  dots,  which  hangs  for  a  long  time  on  the  long  stalks, 
heightens  the  color  effect.    The  fruit  makes  a  fine  jelly. 

E.  umbellata  Thunb.  (6g),  a  spiny,  spreading  shrub  (twelve  feet), 
from  Japan;  in  foliage  similar  to  longipes,  but  with  yellowish  to  sil- 
very branches,  and  currant-like,  amlx;r-coiored,  (Hjndent  fruit,  speckled 
with  white,  which  ripens  in  November,  making  a  rare  and  lieautiful  show. 

E.  angusiijolia  Linn,  (hortensis)  (70),  Russian  Olive,  a  low  shrub  to 
small  tree,  from  southern  Europe  to  the  interior  of  Asia,  with  foliage 
light  green  above  and  silvery-white  beneath,  and  silvery  spines,  and 
branches,  with  yellow  flowers  and  yellow  berries.  Stock  from  its 
southern  range  is  tender,  but  that  secured  from  northern  Russia  has 
proved  hardy  even  in  the  Dakotas  and  Manitoba,  being  deerjly  rooting 
and  leafing  out  »ate.    It  can  Ix-  easily  grown  from  cuttings 

E.  macrophylla  Thunb.  (71),  a  graceful,  medium-sizea,  spineless 
shrub  from  Japan;  as  yet  rare,  and  untried  as  to  hardiness,  i-  entirely 
distinct,  being  evergreen,  with  large,  round  leaves,  light  griy  above 
and  pure  white  beneath,  silvery  branchlets,  clusters  of  greenish-yellow 
to  creamy-white  flowers  in  autumn,  and  silvery-white  fruit.  It  is  one 
of  the  finest  species  of  its  genus. 

E.  reflexa  Thunb.  {■]?.),  also  native  of  Japan,  is  another  evergreen, 
with  very  large  (two  to  four  inches)  leaves,  dark  green  above  and  sil- 
very with  brownish  scales  beneath;  flowers  similar  to  the  preceding; 
but  branches  bronze-brown  —  a  fine  contrast  if  combined  with  the  pre- 
ceding. 

Forsythia.  Golden  Bell.  Furnishes  two  species,  both  from  Cliina;  one 
of  the  showiest  shrubs;  early  flowering  (l)efore  the  leaves),  low  (eight  to 
ten  feet),  of  fine,  pendulous  form,  with  handsome,  long,  persistent  foli- 
age, and  a  profusion  of  yellow  flowers.  The  blossoms  are  borne  on 
the  previous  year's  wood,  and  hence,  for  best  flower  effect,  the  shrub 
should  not  be  pruned  in  winter,  but  immediately  after  flowering,  when 
new  branches  will  at  once  form  readily.    Adapted  to  all  soils,  free  from 


Liv 


Olive  Family 


343 


diseases,  and  hardy,  it  combines  all  the  qualities  of  an  ornament  of  the 
first  order.  The  two  sjK-cies  are  best  used  together  on  banks  and  as 
gmund  cover  for  early  flower  effect: 

*  F.  suspensa  Vahl.,  especially  var.  Fortmei  (73),  with  gold.'n- 
yellow  flowers  and  lustrous  dark  green  and  persistent  foliage,  is  the 
best.    Not  hardy  in  Ottawa. 

•  F.  viridissinui  Lindl.  (74^  m'"-e  fmqucntly  planted,  is  more  erect, 
U.S  graceful,  and  with  flowers  of  >;rcLnish-yellow  color,  but  foliage 
brighter  green.     It  is  said  to  be  U  >  hardy  than  the  preceding. 

Ligustnun.  Privet.  Some  thin.,  '"nc  species  of  small  tn  ■>  and 
shrubs  from  Euiope,  Asia,  and  Austr.  la,  with  numerous  var  .  .  i,  ar. 
valuable  for  their  frugality  anu  hardiness,  as  well  as  for  th-i.  -niv 
mental  features,  especially  in  1  le  foliage,  some  of  them  be-.n,  '- 
green.  Some  four  or  fivi-  species  are  planted,  especially  for  hed-  ..  ' 
screens,  although  they  ;irc  apt  to  thin  out  at  the  base.  They  can  be 
used  for  formal  planting,  like  Box,  and  blend  well  with  evergreens. 
They  stand  clipping  well,  and  thrive  in  any  soil. 

*  L.  vulgare  Linn.  (75),  the  Common  Privet  from  Europe,  is  well 
known  as  a  hedge  plant,  although  it  also  makes  a  good  show  in  comers 
and  borders  with  its  well-rounded,  compact  form  (six  to  ten  or  even  fif- 
teen feet  high),  and  upright  panicles  of  nail,  white,  fragrant,  tubular 
flowers  in  profusion  (June,  July),  follow.  1  by  black  lierries.  It  is  the 
hardiest  and  most  adaptive  of  its  tribe;  lialf -evergreen. 

*L.  ffvalifolium  Hask.  (76),  called  California  rrhrt,  although  really 
from  Japan,  has  a  larger  (two  inches),  thicker,  t  .re  persistent  (almost 
evergreen),  glossier,  but  less  dense  half-evergreen  foliage  than  the 
preceding,  and  is  more  rapid,  vigorous,  and  comnaci  in  growth.  It 
is  hardy  into  New  England,  even  in  exposed  (seaMde)  positions,  is 
shade-enduring,  but  needs  a  good  soil.  It  grows  taller  and  more  erect 
than  the  former  (twenty  feet),  but  is  readily  trimmed.  It  is  useful  for 
iK-dges,  borders,  screens,  windbreaks,  and  for  binding  soil  on  banks. 

*  L.  Amurense  Carr.  (77)  (Ibota),  also  from  Japan,  deciduous,  hardier 
than  the  preceding,  and  almost  hardy  in  Manitoba;  more  slender,  grace- 
ful, spreading,  and  curving,  and  smaller  (six  to  ten  feet),  and  with  more 
fragrant  flowers  (midsummer),  in  drooping  clusters,  is  jierhaps  the  best 
of  the  genus,  both  for  specimen  and  mass  planting. 

The  evergreen  privets  from  Japan  and  China  (L.  Japonifum)  (78), 
Quihoui  (79),  Sinense  (80),  not  being  hardy,  are  fit  only  for  southern 
planting. 


i 


344 


List  of  Shrubs 


. 


Shepherdia.  5.  argenka,  Buffalo  Berry.  A  hardy  native,  a  slender, 
upright  shrub  of  five  to  fifteen  feet,  sometimes  in  tree  form;  its  silvery- 
white,  delicate  foliage  and  light-colored  bark  is  useful  for  contrast 
effects  with  darker  shades.  It  is  rendered  still  more  attractive  by  its 
profuse  compact  clusters  of  small,  yellow  flowers  (April,  May),  and  its 
bunches  of  edible  crimson  truit  (acid),  borne  only  on  female  shrubs. 
The  female  can  be  told  from  the  buds,  vtrhich  are  longer  and  more 
slender,  the  males  being  short  and  blunt.     It  is  a  good  hedge  fjlant. 

This,  and  still  more  its  hardier,  rusty-colored  congener,  S.  Cana- 
densis Nutt.  (82),  which  is,  however,  less  show),  with  red  and  yellow 
berries,  are  adapted  to  cover  sterile  soils,  gravelly  banks,  etc.,  but  they 
are  not  quite  easily  handled. 

Syringa.  Lilac.  A  well-known  genus,  with  some  fifteen  species  and 
very  many  varieties,  from  Asia  Minor,  Persia,  Japan,  and  China, 
familiar  in  all  gardens.  The  genus  name  in  this  countrj'  is  unfortunately 
used  as  a  common  name  for  Philadel pints,  the  mock  orange,  thus  occa- 
sioning confusion.  They  are  vigorous  growers,  sometimes  assuming 
tree  form,  hardy  (a  number  of  them  to  the  Canadian  \orthwest),  and 
frugal,  adapting  themselves  anywhere.  They  are  most  ready,  early 
bloomers  (April,  May),  with  large  clusters  of  variously  colored,  fra- 
grant flowers,  which  are  their  chief  attraction.  They  are  planted  in 
groups,  hedges,  borders,  and  as  single  specimens.  With  proper  selec- 
tion, they  may  afford  a  continuous  flower  show  from  April  to  June  and 
even  July.  The  foliage  of  some  species  is  liable  to  mildew  in  late  sum- 
mer. Pruning  in  winter  and  spring  would  destroy  the  summer's  bloom- 
ing, as  the  flowers  are  borne  in  terminal  buds,  but  when  bloomed  off 
the  inflorescence  should  be  removed,  because  they  suffer  much  from 
seed-bearing,  which  exhausts  the  reser%c  materials. 

Six  species  have  served  as  the  basis  for  the  many  varieties  and  hybrids 
of  the  horticulturists. 

.S.  vulgaris  Linn.  (83),  the  common  Lilac,  a  small,  rather  bushy  tree 
(ten  to  twelve  feet),  is  familiar  to  everybody,  having  been  in  cultivation 
for  three  hundred  years.  The  foliage  comes  early,  and  remains  green 
long  into  the  fall,  and  the  fragrant  lilac  flowers,  which  are  mostly 
terminal,  appear  in  May, 

Among  the  more  than  one  hundred  very  ornamental  varieties  are 
—  alba  (83a),  with  white  flowers;  alba  grmai flora  (83ft),  a  smaller  bush, 
with  large,  white  flower  clusters;  .\farie  Lc;^rayc  (8,^),  a  dwa^f,  with  an 
abundance  of  pearl-white  blossoms;  Charles  X  (8,3(/),  a  remarkably 


Pea  Family 


345 


free  bloomer,  with  reddish -purple  blossoms  and  glossy  foliage;  Charles 
Joly,  with  reddish-purple  flowers;  Congo,  a  very  dark  bluish,  very 
distinct  bloomer;  Madame  Casimir  Perrier,  with  pure  white  double 
flowers.    These  are  all  hardy  to  the  Canadian  Northwest. 

S.  Persica  Linn.  (84),  Persian  Lilac,  is  a  smaller  and  more  graceful 
snrub  (four  to  eight  feet)  than  the  preceding,  with  smaller,  more  ele- 
gant rich  green  foliage  and  smaller,  pale  lilac  flower  clusters  (May, 
June)  all  along  the  branches.    .\  white  variety  is  also  often  planted. 

5.  Chincnsis  Willd.  (85),  (Rothomagensis),  Rouen  Lilac,  a  large  (eight 
to  ten  feet)  Chinese  shrul),  excels  in  the  profusion  of  very  large  clus- 
ters of  very  fragrant  violet  flowers,  and  has  smaller,  more  graceful  foli- 
age than  vulgaris. 

S.  oblata  Lindl.  (86),  also  from  China,  is  similar  to  the  con^mon  lilac, 
with  larger,  purplish  flowers,  appearing  two  weeks  earlier  (the  earliest, 
May)  and  with  the  foliage  variegated  in  b.illiant,  vinous  red  fall  snades. 
5.  pubescens  Turcz  (87)  (vil'osa).  a  dwarf  from  China  or  Himalayas, 
is  useful  for  its  late  and  very  profuse  blooming  (end  of  May),  with 
almost  scentless  flowers  of  purplish  or  bluish  rose  turning  into  white, 
and  for  its  vcr>-  large,  striking  bright  green  foliage.    Fine  for  hedg  ... 

S.  Japonica  Decne  (88),  Japan  Tree  Lilac,  a  larger  tree  (over  twenty 
feet),  with  upright  branches,  spreading  crown,  large,  elliptic  leaves,  and 
very  showy,  unusually  large  flower  clusters  (often  a  fo<Jt  long)  of  creamy- 
white  blosssoms  which  are  not  very  fragrant,  but  come  the  latest  in  the  sea- 
son (end  of  June  to  July),  and  thus  prolong  the  lilac  season.  Quite  hardy. 
5.  Josikcea  Jacq.  (89),  a  large  (twelve  feet),  rigid,  very  hardy  shrub 
from  Hungary  with  large,  glossy,  deep  green,  laurel-like  foliage  and 
scentless  violet  flowers  in  narrow  panicles,  is  less  handsome,  but  it  is 
useful  because  of  its  late  flowering  (the  latest  colored  one,  June,  July). 
It  is  well  adapted  for  hedge  work. 

.  An  endless  numl)er  of  hybrids  have  been  produced,  mostly  of  vul- 
garis, some  of  which  are  cited  above,  to  which  constant  additions  are 
made,  most  of  which  increase  the  size  or  vary  the  shade  of  the  flowers, 
wliile  some  form  double  flowers.  Of  the  latter,  S.  lemoni  (89a) 
is  said  to  be  the  Ixst. 


PEA   FAMILY    (LEGUMINOSAE) 

This  family  with  the  familiar,  two  lipj)cd  or  winged  flowers,  pod- 
like fruit  of  the  common  ()ea,  and  compound  leaves,  contains  a  large 


346 


List  of  Shrubs 


number  of  ornamentals,  both  trees  and  shrubs,  distributed  through 
many  genera. 

Acacia,  see  Trees  [List  Bl. 

Albizzia,  see  Trees  [List  B]. 

Amorpha.  A.fructkosa  Linn.  (90),  False  Indigo,  a  native  of  southern 
United  States,  but  haray  north  to  Ottawa,  is  a  spreading  shrub  (six  to 
eight  feet  and  more),  with  many  shoots,  beset  with  oblong,  pinnate 
leaves  of  many  bright  green  leaflets,  and  unusual,  dark  violet,  purplish 
small  flowers,  appea'-ing  in  terminal  spikes  or  racemes,  bunched  in  twos 
and  threes  (June).  It  is  adapted  to  dry  situations  and  fit  for  borders 
and  massing  on  rocky  slopes  and  banks. 

A.  canescens  Nutt.  (91)  or  Lead  Plant,  a  native  dwarf  of  the  Middle 
West,  is  useful  for  color  effects  because  of  its  generally  whitish-silvery 
or  lead-colored  hues  in  foliage  and  stems,  and  its  late,  deep  purple  to 
light  blue  flower  spikes  (June  to  August).  It  is  also  fit  for  dry  soils, 
especially  in  rock  gardens,  and  hardy. 

Caragana,  Pea  Tree,  see  Trees  [List  B]. 

Cercis,  Redhud,  see  Trees  [List  C]. 

Cladrastis,  Yellow-wood,  see  Trees  [List  B]. 

Colutea.  C.  aiborcsccns  Linn.  (92),  Bladder  Senna,  a  native  of  Italy, 
is  the  haroiest  and  most  adaptive  of  this  otherwise  not  quite  hardy 
gen  ;s.  a  molium-sizil  (six  to  ten  feet),  slender  shrub,  decorative  by 
reason  of  it.s  i;'aucous  green  foliage  of  comjxiund  leaves,  holding  their 
color  into  laie  fall,  and  of  its  yellow  to  Iirownish-red  flowers,  continu- 
ing through  the  summer,  followed  by  an  interesting,  balloon-like  fruit, 
green  to  reddish,  which  gives  it  its  name.  It  makes  a  well-rounded 
head,  and  thrives  l)est  in  sunny  situations  and  well-drained  soil,  but 
is  only  half  hardy,  and  rarely  used. 

C.  crunita  Ait.  (9.?)  {orientalis),  a  smaller  shrub,  from  southern 
Europi.  with  jjiile  red  to  orange  Howers,  and  a  few  other  species  and 
varieties  are  also  useful. 

Cytisus,  the  wtll  known  Broom,  i>  a  genus  with  some  foiiy-five 
species  from  EuroyK-,  Africa,  an<i  Asia.  It  is  noted  for  its  free  flower- 
ing habit,  with  veliow.  white,  and  |)urple  racemes  in  early  spring  and 
sumnur.  These  shruii;-  ;;row  in  almost  any  soil,  even  a  dry  gravelly 
one,  an<'  are  mostly  hardy.  Thi'v  are  well  adapud  for  borders  of 
shrubljeries. 

C  scoparius  Link.  fojK  the  ScoUli  Broom,  a  low  (six  to  ten  feet) 
shrub,  has  become  naturalized  in  many  plaees.     It  is  useful  in  cover- 


Rose   Family 


347 


ing  rough,  unsightly  places,  and  being  a  persistent  sprouter  it  main- 
tains itself  readily.    It  prefers  sunny  situations. 

Most  of  the  other  species  are  smaller,  more  compact  shrubs.  The 
dwarf  forms  are  especially  handsome  for  rockeries,  and  some  make  fine 
tub  plants. 

C.  capitatus,  Scop.  (95),  from  Europe,  excels  in  its  large  flowers  in 
summer;  C.  nigricans  Linn.  (95a)  in  its  blooming  twice  a  year;  C.  albus 
Linn.  (95ft),  in  its  white  flowers;  C.  purpureus  Scop.  (95c),  in  its 
purple  blood  flowers  and  its  prostrate  form. 

Desmodium  (Lesp«deza).  Tick  Trefoil  or  Bush  Clmer.  For  late 
flowering  shrubs  (September,  October),  notliing  fmer  can  be  found 
than  the  two  species  of  this  genus  from  Japan,  both  of  which  arc 
hardy,  and  easily  grown;  with  pinnate  leaves  of  three  leaflets  and 
small  purple  or  white  flowers.  For  best  effect  they  should  be  cut 
back  to  the  root  eveiy  winter,  when  they  throw  out  many  stems  in 
the  spring. 

*  D.  pendnlifinrum  Oudem.  (Sieholdi)  U^)  is  a  gracefully  pendulous 
bush,  native  of  Japan,  with  rather  largi-,  deep  rose  to  purple  flowers, 
continuing  to  bloom  until  winter. 

*  D.  Japonicum  Hort.  (97),  from  Japan  and  China,  is  a  lower  shrub 
(two  to  four  feet),  with  similar  pendulous  branches,  but  pure  white 
blossoms  and  lighter  foliage. 

Laburnum,  Golden  Chain,  see  Trees  (List  B). 
Lespedeza,  sec  Desmodium. 
Robinia,  Locust,  see  Trees  (List  B). 
Sophora,  see  Trees  (.List  B). 

ROSE  FAMILY  (ROSiECEAE) 

This  is  one  of  the  largest,  to  which,  besides  the  roses,  belong  most 
of  our  common  fruit  trees  —  apples,  pears,  cherries,  and  hawthorns, 
which  ail  have  the  farriliar  rose  flower,  usually  small  and  single,  but 
sometimes  double  and  in  head's,  and  the  colored  fruit  various,  hips, 
apples,  or  berries. 

Amelanchier,  Shadhush,  Juneherry,  see  Trees  (List  C). 

Crattegus,  Hawthorn,  so»-  'frees  (List  C]. 

Cotoneaster,  a  genus  of  some  twenty  five  species  from  Europe,  Asia, 
and  Africa,  furnishes  a  few  very  hardy,  handsome  shrubs,  some  of 
them  eruergrecn,  w  'h  ornamental  fruit,  which  hangs  on  through  the 


mtiM 


348 


List  of  Shrubs 


winter.    They  thrive  in  any  except  a  very  wet  soil,  and  prefer  light, 
but  can  stand  half  shade. 

C.  horizonldis  Decne  (98),  from  China,  a  half-hardy,  low  shrub, 
with  almost  horizontal  branches;  is  one  of  the  most  effective  shrubs  for 
rockeries,  with  half  evergreen,  roundish  foliage,  and  single,  pinkish- 
white  flowers  and  bright  red  fruit. 

C.  microphylla  Wall.  (99),  a  dense,  prostrate  shrub  from  the  Hima- 
layas, has  similar  features,  but  oblong,  glossy,  evergreen  foliage. 

C.  Simomi  Bak.  (100),  and  C.  frigida  Wall.  (loi),  the  former  less 
hardy,  are  large,  beautiful  shrubs,  both  in  flower  and  fruit. 

Besides  these  evergreen  species  there  are  two  deciduous  ones,  bear- 
ing their  white  flowers  in  showy,  flat-topped  clusters:  C.  muUifiora 
Bonge.  (102),  a  large  (five  to  eight  feet)  shrub  from  China,  with 
slender,  curving  branches,  a  very  rapid  grower,  and  attractive  with  its 

red  berries; 

C.  nummularia  Fisch.  &  Mey.  (103),  native  of  t'le  Himalayas, 
hardy,  smaller,  and  more  upright  than  the  preceding,  flowering  later 
and  more  profusely,  the  red  Ijerries  jjcrsisting  into  wintt-r. 

*  Exochorda.  E.  grandiftora  Lindl.  (104),  Pearl  Bush,  a  tall  (eigfrf  to 
ten  feet),  hardy  (not  jn  Ottawa),  Chinese  shrub,  growing  sometimes  into 
tree  form,  can  only  by  proper  pruning  l>e  kept  in  good  form;  is  prized 
for  the  profusion  of  graceful  festoons  of  ,)eari-white,  eariy  flowers  (April, 
May),  a  floral  g<;m  for  refined  plantations.  Unfortunately,  the  flowers 
are  of  short  duration,  and  as  they  furnish  the  chief  ornamental  value  of 
the  shrub,  it  should  Ix-  planted  only  in  the  interior  of  groups.  It 
requires  a  moist,  fertile  .loil. 

Pirus  and  Prunus  {Almond,  Apple,  Cherry,  Peach,  Pear,  Plum, 
Quince),  see  under  Trees  [List  C]. 
Physocarpus,  see  Spiraea. 

Rhodotypus.  R.  kerrioides  S.  k  Z.  (105),  a  small  shrub  from  Japan, 
hardy  to  Massachusetts,  half  hardy  in  Ottawa,  has  few  equals  in  grace- 
ful, delicate,  slender-pointed  green  foliage,  Iwnse  on  a  multiplicity  of 
branches,  tipped  in  spring  with  conspicuous,  larg^%  white,  solitar>', 
rose-like  flowers,  followed  by  a  dry,  s^jmewhat  shiny,  black,  apple-like 
fruit,  hanging  into  winter.     It  requires  a  well-drained,  fertile  soil. 

Rosa.  Rose.  Rose  culture  is  an  art  by  itsi-lf,  and  an  endless  variety 
of  flowers  have  l)een  produced  by  hybridization,  Ix-sides  the  hundn'd  or 
more  species.  For  ornamental  use  outside  the  flower  garden,  and  for 
hedges  and  ground  cover,  at  least  three  species  deserve  attention,  to  be 


Rose  Family 


349 


always  used  in  masses.  They  fit  into  almost  any  soil  and  are  easily 
handled. 

R.  rtigosa  Thunb.  (io6),  from  Japan,  is  one  of  the  most  desirable 
low  shrubs  (five  to  ten  feet),  a  vifjorous  sjjrouter,  and  most  hardy,  fit 
for  ex{)o.sed  places  and  .seaside  planting.  Its  dense,  thick,  shining, 
dark  green  foliage  makes  it  a  desirable  plant  in  lawn  and  border  even 
without  the  flowers,  but  the  latter,  large  (three  to  four  inches),  deep  red, 
blossoming  al)un(lantly  in  clusters  from  June  into  fall,  and  the  .scarlet- 
crim.son,  crab-apple-like  hij .-  add  greatly  to  its  Inauty.  It  .stands 
shearing  well,  and  makes  excellent,  informal  hedges,  but  for  lx;st  efTect 
it  should  be  kept  trimmed,  as  it  rapidly  reestablishes  it.self.  It  is  free 
from  insects  and  fungus. 

R.  rubiginosa  Linn.  (107),  English  Sweelbriar  or  Eglantine,  from 
Europe,  is  another  small,  dense  shrublet,  but  with  lighter  foliage  and 
with  a  profusion  of  delicate  pink  blossoms  (June).  It  fit.  well  into 
rugged  comers  and  between  rocks,  and  makes  a  pleasing  hedge  pant. 
It  is  .somewhat  less  hardy  than  the  preceding. 

R.  iucida  Ehrh.  (108),  Native  Wild  Rosr,  si.x  feet  in  height,  with 
handsome,  dark,  glossy  foliage  and  .solitary,  bright  pink  flowers,  followed 
by  persi.<tent  red  hips  and  brownish-red  stems,  is  effectively  massed 
to  cover  wild  comers,  rough  embankments,  and  exposed  situations,  as 
well  as  for  hedges;  rather  improving  under  the  shears. 

Besid(  those  standard  hedge  and  cover  plants,  there  are  three 
others,  one  native  and  two  Japanese,  with  a  number  of  hybrids  of  the 
same-    to  l)e  used  similarly: 

R.  setigera  Michx.  (109),  Prairie  Rose,  of  a  wide  range  from  Ontario 
to  Texas  and  Florida,  and  one  of  the  hardiest,  excels  by  virtue  of  its 
large  foliage  and  long,  slender,  recur\-ed  or  climbing  branches  (six 
feet),  and  profu.sr,  deep  n,sc.  many-flowered  corj-mbs. 

R.  multiflora  Thunb.  (no),  from  Japan,  is  a  very  pretty  medium- 
sized  shrub,  and  especially  its  hybrid  Dawsoniaiia  {iioa),  is  one  of  the 
Ix'st  climbing  roses,  with  large  clusters  of  crim.son  flowers. 

/?,  Wichuraiaiiii  Crcpian.  (m).  Memorial  Rose,  {mm  Japan,  a  half 
evergreen  with  prostrate  and  creeping  branches,  and  with  large  white, 
fragrant  flowers,  and  rcmarkabir  iu.strous  foliage,  is  a  handsome  cover 
for  banks  and  rockeries,  thriving  in  any  soil.  A  great  number  of  hybrids 
adaplcil  for  training  on  pillars  and  trellis  work  are  derived  from  this 
rose. 

Sfjrbus.   Service-Tree,  .see  Trees  [List  B]. 


I 


350 


List  of  Shrubs 


Spiraea.  This  well-known  genus  of  the  rose  family,  with  over  fifty 
species  and  very  numerous  varieties,  permitting  a  wide  choice  as  to 
time  of  flowering  (from  early  spring  to  late  fall),  and  size,  has  repre- 
sentatives in  all  continents  among  herbs,  as  well  as  low  to  tall  shrubs. 
Delicate,  white  and  rose-colore<l  flowers,  freely  produced  in  showy 
clusters,  and  fine,  mostly  small  foliage  arc  their  ornamental  features, 
while  hardiness,  frugality,  case  of  propagation,  and  vigor,  though  full 
of  grace,  recommend  them  for  use  ever>-where,  especially  as  borders, 
along  walls,  facings,  etc.,  or  in  masses  of  one  variety.  Some  of  them, 
to  be  sure,  lack  in  outline,  being  weedy  of  appearance,  which  defect 
must  be  overcome  by  pmper  grouping.    They  prefer  sunny  exposures, 

but  a  moist  soil. 

Of  the  native  ones,  at  least  three  late  flowering  species  deserve 

atteniio'-  ■ 

S.  oy.ilifolia  Linn.  (112)  {Physncarpus,  Neillia,  Opulastcr), 
Nineha-rK  (Ix-cause  easily  peeling),  is  the  best  known,  a  shrub  of  our 
eastern  swamj«,  and  into  the  Canadian  Northwest,  thriving  in  all 
soils.  A  rugged,  rather  coarse,  spreading  bush,  cf  six  to  ten  feet  in 
height,  with  relatively  large,  three-lol)ed,  serrate,  bright  green,  lus- 
trous leaves,  an.l  white  flowers  (early  summer)  in  numerous  clusters 
along  the  branches,  followed  by  bright  red  i^ds,  contrasting  well  with 
the  foliage.  A  variety,  5.  aurra,  with  bright  yellow  leaves  and  double 
flowers  (June),  is  one'of  the  best  plants  for  color  effect.  Both  are  fine 
specimens  and  good  for  massing. 

S.  salkifnlia  Linn.  (113),  Meadow-sweet  (now  classed  also  with  two 
other  species,  alba  and  lalijolia),  so  called  from  the  fact  that  it  is  found 
bordering  meadows  and  swamps,  from  Manitoba  south,  is  a  low  bush 
(two  to  five  feet),  with  reddish-brown  branches  and  long,  willow-like 
leaves.  The  terminal  panicles  of  fine,  white  to  pink  flowers  in  July, 
persisting  into  August,  are  its  chief  attraction. 

S.  tcmentosa  Linn.  (114),  Sleeplebush,  Hardltack,  also  quite  low, 
with  oblong  leave,  dark  green  above  and  yellowish  or  whitish  beneath, 
and  dense  spikes  of  rose-colored  or  deep  pink  flowers  (July  to  Septem- 
ber). 

Of  exotic  species,  several  from  Japan  and  China,  quite  as  hardy 
and  frugal,  are  more  elegant  than  the  natives  and  some  are  earlier 

bloomers. 

*  S.  Thunbergi  Sieb.  (115)  is  one  of  the  most  [wpular,  the  earliest 
bloomer  (.\pril.  May),  with  sma!!,  white  flowers  covering  the  low,  round, 


Rose  Family 


351 


arching  bush  (three  to  four  feet),  like  snow,  before  the  appearance  of 
the  small  leaves;  the  feathery,  bright  green  foliage  in  graceful  sprays 
turning  to  golden  bronze.  It  is  most  ht  for  rounding  off  groups  of 
shrubberj'. 

S.  argula,  a  garden  variety  of  the  fo.  mer  and  similar  to  it,  excels  in 
its  more  vigorous  develoj)ment,  earlier  and  more  i)rofuse,  feathery, 
pure  white,  larger  flowers,  and  in  its  perfect  hardiness. 

S.  primifolia  Jlore  plena  S.  &  Z.  (116),  Bridiil-Wreatk,  the  double- 
flowering,  plum-leaved  Spiriea,  is  only  half  hardy  at  Ottawa,  a  taller 
shrub  (five  to  seven  feet),  with  arching  branches,  beset  with  tiny  white 
double  flowers  in  early  spring  before  the  appearance  of  the  leaves,  which 
are  glossy  green,  turning  brilliant  orange. 

S.  sorbifolia  Linn.  {Sorbaria  sorbifolia  A.  Braun),  from  the  Ural  to 
Japan,  is  one  of  the  tallest  Spiraeas  (ten  feit),  with  large  pinnate  elegant 
foliage,  and  long  terminal  tassels  of  pure  white,  late  flowers  (June, 
July). 

S.  Irilobala  Linn.  (117),  only  two  to  four  feet  high,  with  similar 
wealth  of  flowers  in  May;  but  more  striking  on  account  of  size  and 
pinkish  color. 

*  S.  Vapi  Houttei  Zabel.  (118),  the  most  profuse,  hardy  bloomer, 
covering  the  gracefully  spreading  branches  from  end  to  end  (four  to 
six  feet),  with  blossoms  in  dense  umbels  in  May.  A  smooth,  trifoliate, 
dark  green  foliage,  with  pale  underside  and  rounded  form,  adds  to  its 
usefulness  for  border  planting. 

S.  bracleatd  Zabel  {media  rolundijolia) ,  a  garden  variety,  comes  next 
to  the  foregoing  in  time,  with  its  showy  umbels  of  white  flowers,  and 
excels  in  its  fine,  red-brown  color  of  twigs,  and  dark  green  handsome 
foliage,  remaining  fresh  until  late  in  fall. 

Of  the  pink-flowering  ones,  three  recommend  themselves: 

.S\  Bumalda  Burv.  (119),  the  Everhlooming  Spircea,  a  flat- topped  but 
upright  dwarf,  with  a  profusion  of  rose-pink  flowers  (throughout  sum- 
mer and  fall),  with  serrate  foliage,  of  rare  beauty; 

S.  Anthony  Waterer  (119a),  a  variety  of  the  former,  with  lai-ger, 
pink  to  crimson  flower  heads  (July,  August),  which  continue  through- 
out the  summer. 

S.  SHperba  Zabel  (uQ^),  a  low  shrub  with  strijjed  dark  brown 
branches,  large  leaves,  and  light  pink,  rather  large  flowers  (June, 
July). 


'1^1 
I 


352 


H 


List  of  Shrubs 

STONEBREAK   FAMILY    (SAXIFRAGACEAE) 


This  very  large  family  (some  six  hundred  species)  of  mostly  herba- 
ceous plants,  with  smaller  or  larger,  white,  star-shai)ed  flowers  in 
racemes  or  heads,  familiar  in  the  Hydrangea,  contains  at  least  four 
genera  with  about  a  dozen  ornamental  shrubs,  attractive  in  foliage 

(large)  and  flowers.  _ 

Itea.  /.  virsinica  Linn.  (120),  improi>erly  called  Virginia  11  j//ow,  a 
native  species  from  New  Jersey  south,  tender  in  Ottawa,  of  a  genus 
widely  distributed;  is  an  upright  shrub,  three  to  eight  feet  high,  some- 
what coarse  in  form,  but  attractive  by  bright,  lustrous  foliage,  turning 
scarlet -crimson  in  summer  or  eariy  fall,  as  well  as  by  the  dense,  terminal 
racemes  of  small,  white,  fragrant  flowers  (June,  July).  It  is  adaptive 
to  any  situation,  wet  and  dr>',  sunny  and  shady;  a  rai)id  grower;  useful 
in  grouping  with  other  coarser  shrubs  in  large  i)lantations  and  at 
water-sides.     It  may  be  secured  from  the  woods. 

Hydrangea.  A  genus  of  thirty  to  forty  species,  native  and  from  Asia, 
and  a  long  line  of  varieties  and  hybrids,  some  n-ergreen  and  mostly  only 
semi-hardy,  orr.ainenlal,  with  their  large,  siiowy  rather  than  beau- 
tiful, broadly  ovate  leaves,  and  large  clusters  of  beautiful,  variously 
hued,  late  flowers.  Forms  with  the  enlarged  sterile  flowers  are  most 
generally  planted.  They  require  rich  soil  and  partial  shade,  though 
producing  best  flower  etTects  in  sunny  sites.  Tor  best  flower  effect 
they  should  \x  pruned  severely  if  large  i)anicles  are  desired,  less 
so  (to  two  or  three  buds^  if  smaller  but  more  numerous  panicles 
are  the   object.    They  are  admirable  for  sijecimens,  border  planting, 

or  massing. 

*  //.  painculata  Siei..,  from  Japan,  is  the  hardiest,  a  large  shrub, 
sometimes  grown  in  tree  form  with  globular  head.  The  variety  grandi- 
folia  (121)  is  most  generally  planted,  producing  immense  terminal 
heads  (five  by  ten  inches)  of  (Teamy-whitc,  entir-ly  sterile  flowers 
(August,  September),  changing  to  purplish- red  or  bronze,  and  contm- 
umg  till  frost,  lor  best  flower  elTect  and  form  it  should  be  cut  back 
to  the  ground  annuallv  in  early  si)ring.  the  new  shoots  pn.ducing  flowers 
the  same  year;  an.l  something  else  should  be  planted  in  front,  to  relieve 
its  coarseness  and  to  form  a  foreground. 

If.  quercijolid  Hartr.  (122),  a  native  of  the  Alleghanies,  a  hardy 
shrub,  four  to  six  feet  higli,  with  spreading  branches,  is  much  more 
satisfactory  than  the  preceding,  and  is  especially  valuable  for  its  large 


kiV'^^ 


Stonebreak  Family 


353 


oak-leaf-like   foliage   (four  to  eight  inches),  with   rich  autumn  tints, 
and  pinkish-white  flowers  (June)  turning  purple. 

H.  vestila  pubescens  Maxim.  (123),  a  shrub  from  China,  with  slender 
branches  (four  to  five  feet),  is  recommended  for  its  hardiness  (half 
hardy  in  Ottawa),  and  its  early  blooming  (June)  in  broad  cymes  of 
flower.-,  white  changing  to  pink,  and  large  leaves  (four  to  eight  inches). 

Among  the  less  hardy  ones,  which  require  protection  in  winter,  are: 

H.  hortensis  Smith  (124),  and  a  number  of  varieties,  especially 
H.  Otaksa  Maxim  (124a),  from  China,  with  variable  color  of  flowers, 
which  appear  in  July  in  large  balls,  and  change  hues  (white  to  blue  and 
pink)  during  the  season;  are  good  tub  plants  on  piazzas  and  in  formal 
gardens. 

H.  Thunbergi  S.  &  Z.  (serrata)  (125),  a  dwarf,  from  Japan,  with 
blue  or  rose-colored  flowers  in  cymes. 

Deutzia.  A  genus  from  Asia,  of  tall,  medium,  and  low,  sturdy  shrubs 
of  rather  stiff  habit;  more  or  less  hardy,  and  very  ornamental,  with 
dense,  luxuriaiit  foliage,  and  showy,  white  to  purplish  flowers  in  bunches, 
mostly  from  the  axils  of  the  leaves.  They  thrive  in  almost  any  soil 
and  are  easily  cultivated. 

D.  scabra  Thunb.  (126),  a  native  from  China  and  Japan  (six  to  eight 
feet),  with  rough,  stiff,  rigid  foliag-:;  forms  the  basis  of  a  number  of 
varieties,  whicii  are  superior  to  the  type  in  their  flowers,  of  which  the 
best,  D.  Jlore  pleno  (124a),  Pride  of  Rochester  (sonietimes  referred  to 
crenala),  is  also  the  largest  as  well  as  the  best  in  form,  with  large,  double, 
pure  white,  rather  early  flowers  (May,  June\  D.  candidissima  (1266), 
has  the  double  white  flowers  in  rosettes. 

D.  crcnata  S.  &  Z.  purpurea  (127)  and  D.  Watereri  (127a)  have 
flowers  of  a  pink  shade,  thi  first  sinj^lc,  the  second  double. 

D.  pari'ijlora  "^  mgo.  (i-'8),  the  hardiest,  from  China  (four  to  six 
feet),  is  the  earnest  bloomer  (April),  with  creamy-white,  lilac-like 
bunches  of  flowers,  and  rather  roughened  foliage,  of  bettet  form  than 
the  preceding. 

P.  gracilis  Sieb.  &  Zucc  (129),  from  Japrn,  a  dwarf  (one  to  four 
feet)  of  rounded  form,  with  slender,  arching  branches  and  eariy  (May), 
very  luxuriant  inflorr  -enc^  of  delicate,  small,  vhite  flowers  in  graceful, 
nodding  raceme- ,  i.  .he  *'est  for  borders,  for  ladings,  and  small  places. 

D.  Lemoinei  Hort.  V130),  cross  between  D.  gracilis  and  D.  pan't- 
fora,  another  dwarf,  with  large  fuliage  (two  or  three  inches),  is  said  fo 
excel  the  foregoing  in  vigor  and  showiness. 


354 


List  of  Shrubs 


Philadelphus.  Afock  Orange,  misnamed  Syringa  and  Jasmine,  a 
genus  with  some  thirty  siK-cies  and  a  larut  number  of  varieties  and 
hybrids  of  tail  to  nudium-sized  siirubs,  from  Kuroin-,  Asia,  and  native; 
hardy  and  easily  propagated,  vigorous  growers,  and  apt  to  assume 
rather  coarse  form,  with  broad,  ornamental  foliage  and  medium  to  large 
flowers.  For  best  form  and  flowering,  severe  cutting  back  after  floAfer- 
in^  is  essential,  the  flowers  forming  on  the  wood  of  last  year.  They  are 
adaptive  and  shade-enduting. 

P.  coronarius  Linn.  (131),  from  southern  Europe,  a  shrub  of  twelve 
to  fiftiiii  feet,  of  iipiiglu  hal)it,  with  creamy -white,  strongly  fragrant 
(objectiotiaLlL  to  some),  medium  to  large,  orange-like  flowers  (May), 
ill  ract'KK.s,  and  sharply-pointed,  bright  green  foliage.  Varieties  with 
double  fl'iwers  and  variegated  foliaf^r*',  and  of  lower  stature,  exist;  the 
species  is,  however,  lx\st  used  for  Ixjrder  planting. 

P.  Gordonianus  Lindl.  {132),  a  native  of  our  nortiiwest,  with  scent- 
less llowers  in  racemes,  blooms  in  July. 

P.  inudorus  l.inn.  (grandifiorus)  (133),  of  southern  habitat,  hence 
not  <juite  hardy,  has  n.uiul  haves  and  murh  larger,  scentless  flowers 
I.May). 

P.  mkrophyllHS  (Iray  (134),  from  the  Rocky  Mountains,  is  a  dwarf, 
with  sloiHkr,  rigid  branches,  dense  foliage  of  small  leaves,  and  large 
terminal,  very  fragr  nit  flowers  in  tlirees.  It  is  .".dapted  for  sunny, 
dry  sites,  and  e.xcellent  for  rock  gardens. 

STORAX   FAMILY 

This  family  with  small,  o|)cn,  lx?ll-like,  dciicate  flowers,  as  a  rule 
white,  blooming  earl\,  contain,  seven  genera,  consisting  mo.stly  of 
tropical  species,  tliiec  of  which,  iiowcver,  furnish  ornamental  values  for 
northern  use. 

Halesia  (  Mohrodendron).  Snowdrop  or  Silver  Bell  Tree.  Is  a  genus 
of  si.x  or  eight  s[)ecies,  of  which  iwo  arc  native  through  the  South,  in 
nature  growing  into  tree  form,  'riiv-e  are  among  the  finest  omament.s, 
with  their  profusion  if  early  clusters  of  delicate  white,  "silver-bell" 
flowers  two  to  four  in  a  cluster,  on  long  stalks,  apjK'aring  with  the 
foliage;  and  their  graceful  form,  with  many  long,  slender  branches,  and 
with  rather  large,  light  green  foliage,  making  a  pleasing  round  bush, 
which  is  best  used  singly.  They  are  adaptive  to  s<mIs,  prefer  shade, 
and  are  easily  handled,  but  are  only  half  hardy  nunh  of  Philadelphia. 


Storax  Family 


355 


The  two  native  species  are  as  k<x>'I  or  '>'-»^'''  t''^"  ""y  "'  ^'"'  '''"*'''" 
introductions. 

♦  //.  /(-/rap/era  Linn.  (135)  (M»hrodnidro,i  carohmim),  the  hour- 
■winged  Silver  Ml,  .so  called  from  the  f.,ur-vvinKt<i  fruit;  is  a  iarne  shrul), 
growing  to  twenty  feet,  often  in  tree  form,  with  a  lH.-wilderinK,  cloudy 
mass  of  snowy  white;  early  flowers  (May);  it  is  hanlier  than  its  con- 

^''"* //.  dipieni  F.llis.  (136),  the  Two-WinKrd  Silver  Hell,  which  is  smulior 
(ten  feet),  but  has  even  more  showy,  larger  blossoms  an<l  leaves  it 
neetls  protection  in  the  north. 

Styrax  and  Symplocus.  Storax.  Two  clo.sely  allied  genera  of  over 
two  hundred  and  thirty  s|)ecies,  furnish,  mainly  for  southern  planting, 
a  few  small  trees  and  shrubs,  which,  l)ecau.se  of  their  .lehcate,  wh.tc 
flowers  and  somewhat  tropical -looking,  leathery  foliage,  an.I  graceful 
habit,  have  ornamental  value.  They  are  best  planted  sm^ly,  are 
adapted  to  lijirht  soils,  but  only  half  hardy. 

Styrax  grand! flora  Ait.  (137).  a  shrub  of  five  to  ten  feet,  with  lar^e, 
pointed  leaves  (two  to  six  inches  and  more),  S.  americana  Lam.  (13H), 
and  S.  pulverulenta  (139),  ibe  three  native  siK-cies,  are  of  southern 
range,  and  hence  not  very  hardy,  and  are  outdone  in  beauty  by  the 

Jajjanese  Storax. 

S.  Japonica  S.  &  Z.  (140)  i-s  a  small  to  medium-sized  tree  or  shrub 
(thirty  feet),  with  horizontal  branch  habit;  is  preferably  kept  in  shrub 
form  to  secure  the  Ix-st  tlower  show,  the  pendulous  racemes  of  fragrant 
pure  white  flowers,  with  vrllow  stamens,  covering  the  entire  length  of 
;lv.  'oranchlets  in  early  .uinmer.  The  leaves  are  small  (one  ti.  three 
inch),  pointed,  light  green.  It  is  hardy  as  far  as  New  York  City,  an<l 
a  splendid  sjK'cimt  n  |)l;i'it. 

.S.  Obassia  S.  &  Z.  '141),  sometimes  growing  into  a  small  tree,  also 
from  Japan,  with  catali.a-like  leaves  (si.x  to  ten  inch)  is  less  elTective. 

SmphHOs  tinctoria  L-Hert.,  Sweatlcaj,  so  called  from  the  fragrance 
uf  it's  foliage,  a  pretty,  low  .shrub,  .sometimes  tree,  from  the  Southern 
States,  is  almost  an  e^•ergreen,  with  long  narrow,  somewhat  leathery 
;iave.^,  and  clusters  of  fragrant  yellow  tlowers. 

•v.  craUcgoides  Huch-lL.m  (143^  from  Japan,  is  the  most  hardy 
nf  this  group,  a  -shrub  'tne  to  eight  feet),  s.)metimes  a.'^suming  tree 
lomi  (thirty  feet),  resembling  the  hawthorn  in  outline,  forming  an 
irregular  open  head  with  long,  thick,  rough  leaves  and  panicles  of  fra- 


MiCROcorr  rbouition  tbt  chart 

(ANSI  and  ISO  TEST  CHART  No.  2) 


Li§2B      12.5 


Hi 


116 

1^0     li  2.0 


1.8 


A 


/APPLIED  IM^GE    Inc 

1653  East   Main   street 

???^?**'J-   '**'   ^°^        '♦609       USA 
(716)   ♦82  -  0300  -  Phon. 
(716)   288-  5989  -  Fo« 


356 


List  of  Shrubs 


grant,  white,  small  flowers  (May,  June),  followed  by  bright  blue  berries 
in  September,  which  form  its  chief  attraction. 

VARIOUS    SHRUBS    (Alphabetically  Arranged) 

Acer,  Maple,  see  Trees  [List  C]. 

Aesculus,  Buckeye  or  Hose-chestnut.     See  Trees  [List  B]. 

Aralia,  Angelica  Tree,  Hercules  Club,  see  Trees  [List  B.] 

Alnus,  Alder,  see  Trees  [List  C]. 

Althea,  see  ffibiscus. 

Ash  (Fnurinus),  see  Trees  [List  B]. 

Baccharis.  B.  hamUifolia  Linn.  (144),  Groundsel,  a  tall  to  medium 
shrub  (twelve  feet  or  less),  belonging  to  the  Thistle  family,  native  from 
New  England  south,  is  most  useful  for  its  adaptation  to  the  seashore  and 
salt  marshes  and  almost  any  other  situation.  It  is  ornamental  in  some  de- 
gree, by  virtue  of  the  dark,  lustrous,  {lersistent  foliage,  the  terminal,  dense 
panicles  of  small  yellow  flowers  on  the  male  specimens,  and  the  very  showy, 
snow-white,  long  hairy  pappus  on  the  females,  the  sexes  appearing  on 
different  individuals.  It  is  also  adapted  to  dr>',  rocky  places  as  well  as 
to  the  seashore,  and  to  give  woodsy  effect.    It  prefers  sunny  situations. 

Berberis  (Mahonia).  Barberry.  Some  hundred  species  and  several 
varieties  of  low  shrubs,  natives  of  Europe,  Asia,  and  America;  foliage, 
flower,  and  fruit  being  decorative.  The  leaf  stems  are  more  or  less 
beset  with  small  spines,  making  them  hard  to  handle.  The  leaves  in 
the  Mahonia  group  are  often  fluted  or  crinkly,  holly-like,  holding  their 
color  well,  some  of  them  evergreen,  and  all  retaining  their  leaves  long, 
and  assuming  various  gorgeous  autumn  hues.  The  eariy  flowers  are 
small,  and  of  yellow  hues.  The  fruit,  scarlet  or  crimson,  blue  or  black, 
hangs  on  long  into  winter,  and,  lieing  acid,  makes  an  excellent  preserve. 
They  are  very  adaptive  to  soils,  in  fact  thrive  better  in  dry  than  in  moist 
soils,  endure  shade  well,  and  are  hardy  to  semi-hardy.  A  rust  fungus 
(wheat  rust)  makes  them  the  host  plant  for  one  phase  of  its  existence, 
but  is  not  destructive.  They  are  excellent  for  low  hedges,  and  as  filler 
and  accent  shrubs. 

B.  Canadensis  Mill.  (145),  the  native  dwarf  (one  to  three  feet)  from 
the  southern  Alleghanies,  and  — 

B.  vulgaris  Linn.  (146),  the  European  Barberry  (six  to  ten  feet), 
show  few  differences,  except  that  the  latter  is  larger  and  more  pro- 
nounced in  all  its  characteristics,  —  bristly  leaves,  bright  flowers,  and 


Baccharis  —  Calycanthus 


357 


conspicuous  red  fruit,  -but  the  former  is  distinguished  in  possessing 
reddish  branches.  It  is  apt  to  run  wild.  Both  plants  are  hardy  or 
almost  so  in  Manitoba.  A  very  unique  variety  of  the  same,  alro- 
purpurea  (146a),  with  richly  colored,  permanent,  purple  foliage,  and 
bright  red  shoots,  is  most  useful  for  color  effects. 

*B.  Thunbergi,  D  C.  (147),  f^m  J^Pan,  is  the  best  exotic  and  alto- 
gether most  attractive,  a  low  bush  (two  to  four  feet),  of  varying  fonn, 
with  small,  dark,  glossy,  smooth  foliage  down  to  the  ground,  turning 
scariet,  orange,  and  bronze;  following  the  single,  pale  yelK.w  flowers 
are  coral-berries,  pendent  from  the  under  side  of  branches  and  per- 
sisting in  good  form  into  and  through  the  winter.  It  is  thoroughly 
hardy  (half  hardy  in  Manitoba),  and  frugal.  It  is  excellent  used  by 
itself,  for  borders  of  walks  and  drives,  as  well  as  on  the  lawn  m 
masses,  or  for  edging  other  shrubbery.  ,  .     •      /  a.^ 

B.  Amurensis  Rupr.  (148),  and  especially  a  variety,  Japomca  (i8a) 
a  sturdy,  low  bush  (two  to  five  feet),  growing  without  branches,  with 
very  large  (five  to  ten  inches),  compound,  dark  green,  holly-like  leaves, 
prominently  veined  below,  turning  into  brilliant  bronze  and  purple 
shades;  with  terminal  spikes  of  large  flowers  (May),  and  larger  btmes 
than  vulgaris,  is  hardy  into  Manitoba  and  stands  drouth  wel .  It  is 
not  to  be  confounded  with  the  species  B.  Japonica  Spreng.  (149),  a 
larger  shrub,  five  to  ten  feet,  having  larger  foliage  with  spmy  teeth, 
w4h  is  also  very  effective.  This  is  hardy  north  of  New  York  only 
ii  sheltered  positions  and,  like  the  others,  prefers  shade. 

B  Wallkhiana  D  C.  (Hookeri)  (150),  a  very  showy  and  distmct 
evergreen  from  the  Himalayas;  a  compact  little  bush  with  large  leaves; 
entirely  hardy  in  Massachusetts. 

B.  ilicifolia  Forst.  (151),  from  Terra  del  Fuego,  with  simple,  holly- 
like leaves,  evergreen,  or  neariy  so,  seems  not  to  be  hardy  north  of 

Philadelphia.  .„     ■  a 

Calycanthus  (Butoeria).  C.  floridus  Linn.  (152),  Allspice  or  Straw- 
berry-bush, so  called  from  the  fragrance  of  the  flowers,  leaves,  and  wood, 
and  from  the  dark  strawberry-colored  flowers,  is  a  well-known  native 
from  the  Carolina  mountains,  quite  hardy  to  Ottawa;  a  small,  compact, 
attractive  bush  (four  to  six  feet  and  more),  with  large,  deep  green,  some- 
what leathery  foliage,  and  large  (one  to  two  inches),  deep  blue  to  purple, 
or  chocolate-brown  flowers,  appearing  in  eariy  spring,  and  bboming 
all  summer.  Requires  well-watered  soil;  is  shade-endurmg,  and  makes 
a  good  filler  in  border  planting. 


ill 


358 


List  of  Shrubs 


Three  other  species,  C  glaucus  Willd.  (153),  C.  kevigatus  Willd. 
(154),  and  C.  occidentalis  Hook  and  Am.  (155),  are  scarcely  as  hardy  and 
have  few  superior  points,  except  perhaps  difference  in  color  intensity. 

Caragana,  see  Trees  [List  B]. 

Carpinus,  see  Trees  [List  Cj. 

Chionanthus,  see  Trees  [List  C]. 

Comptonia,  see  M3rrica. 

Celastrus.  Bitter-sweet.  This  genus  of  some  twenty-five  species, 
native  from  Asia  and  Australia,  furnishes  several  low  shrubs  of  a  trail- 
ing or  climbing  habit  which  makes  them  invaluable  for  effective  cover- 
ing of  rocks,  trellis,  or  posts.  Their  bright  varicolored  fruit,  hanging 
on  through  the  winter,  makes  them  even  attractive  at  that  monotone 
season.  They  are  most  adaptive,  filling  any  soil  and  situation,  sun  or 
shade.     Suckering  freely,  they  can  be  readily  propagated  or  renovated. 

C.  scandens  Linn.  (155  bis)  is  our  native  species,  common  from 
Canada  to  New  Mexico,  climbing  to  twenty  feet,  the  crimson  seeds 
in  the  opening  orange-yellow  capsules  continuing  through  the  winter. 

C.  orbicidatus  Thnnh.  {articulatus)  (155  tres),  from  Japan  and  China, 
does  not  differ  much  from  the  former,  but  appears  more  prolific  in  foli- 
age and  fruit,  which  latter,  however,  is  hidden  under  the  foliage  until 
the  fall. 

Corylus.  Hazelnut.  C.  Americana  Walt.  (156),  the  .American  species, 
has  but  little  ornamental  value,  yet  is  picturesque  and  is  useful  for 
planting  along  watercourses  and  other  wet  or  moist,  but  also  in  dry 
places. 

C.  Avellana  Linn,  purpurea  (157),  a  variety  of  the  European  species, 
four  to  six  feet  high,  fit  for  dry  as  well  as  moist  situations,  excels  by  its 
large,  round,  dark  purple,  almost  black  foliage,  preserving  its  color 
even  better  than  the  blood  beech,  changing  to  lighter  hues  in  the  fall. 
There  is  also  a  vry  ornamental  variety,  laciniata  (157(7),  with  deeply 
cut  leaves.    Neither  of  them  are  more  than  half  hardy  at  Ottawa. 

Crape  Myrtle,  see  Lagerstroemia. 

Currant,  see  Ribes. 

Daphne.  Of  the  forty  or  more  species  and  varieties,  widely  dis- 
tributed throughout  the  south  temperate  zone,  at  least  three  deserve 
notice  as  being  among  the  finest  low  shrubs  for  use  in  1  orders,  massing 
for  coior  .  jct  by  foliage,  flower,  and  fruit,  and  especially  in  rock  work 
and  for  reiined  planting.    They  are  adaptive  and  ihade-enduring. 

♦  D.  Mezereum   Linn.  (158)  Lady  Laurel,  Paradise  Plant,  from 


Celastrus  —  Euonymus 


359 


Europe,  is  one  of  the  hardiest,  most  frugal,  early  bloomers,  rarely  over 
two  feet,  and  spreading;  with  dark  green  leaves,  a  profusion  o^  f-'ag^f"' 
lilac-purple  flowers  in  threes,  arriving  with  the  very  earliest  breath  of 
spring  (February  to  April),  long  before  the  coming  of  the  leaves,  fol- 
lowed in  June  by  large,  bright  red  berries  (very  poisonous),  which 
remain  until  fall.  This  is  one  of  the  most  satisfactory  ornaments  for 
a  small  garden.  Although  thcrour-hly  hardy,  and  not  particular  as  to 
soil,  exposure,  and  surroundings  when  once  established,  it  requires 

care  to  propagate.  .  •  »    j  „„^ 

*  D.cneorum  Linn.  (159),  Garland  Flower,  is  another  damty  dwarf, 
also  from  Europe,  as  satisfactory  as  the  foregoing,  if  not  better,  from 
which  it  diifers  in  being  evergreen,  with  dark,  glossy  leaves  and  trailing 
branches,  resembling  the  Trailing  Arbutus,  and  producmg  its  fragrant 
lilac  flowers  not  only  early  (April,  May),  but  continumg  to  blossom 
into  the  summer  ..r.d  often  repeating  a  full  flower  show  in  the  fall. 

D  laureola  Linn.  (160),  SPurge  Laurel,  another  bushy  evergreen 
dwarf  from  Europe,  less  hardy  than  the  preceding,  with  attractive, 
laurel-like  leaves,  but  without  showy  or  fragrant  flowers,  is  exceedmgly 
shade-enduring,  hence  well  adapted  for  underplantmg. 

Euonymus.  Of  the  forty  of  this  genus,  some  seven  species,  Amencan 
European,  and  Asiatic,  recommend  themselves  especially  by  reason  of 
their  pretty  fruit,  and  their  interesting  corky,  green,  and  gray  bark  and 
well-shaped  outline,  though  somewhat  stiff  in  habit.  Their  shade- 
endur.  re  fits  them  for  underplanting;  they  are  hardy  and  frugal,  grow- 
ing in  almost  any  but  thriving  best  in  well-watered  soil.  They  are  as  a 
rule,  hardy  into  Canada.  Some  of  them  grow  into  small  trees,  others 
are  climbers,  some  are  evergreen.  They  are  best  adapted  to  shrub- 
beries, but  also  make  pleasing  individuals  m  small  places. 

E.  Americanus  Linn.  (161).  Sirawherry  Tree,  ranging  from  New  York 
south,  is  really  only  a  small,  straggling  bush,  five  to  eight  feet  high, 
with  very  showy,  crimson,  or  scarlet  fruit. 
E.  atropurpurea  Jacq.  (162),  Burning  Bush,  or  Wahoo,  also  of  Amer- 
-  ican  habitat  from  Canada  to  Florida,  a  shrub  or  tree  (six  to  fifteen  feet 
high),  has  dark  purple  flowers,  followed  by  the  showiest  scarlet  fruit, 
hanging  long  into  winter. 

iiuropL  Linn.  (163),  Spindletree,  or  Papers  Hat,  the  latter  name 
from  its  pale  red  to  orange  fruit  in  the  shape  of  a  cardinal  s  hat, 
resembles  the  former,  the  fruit  being,  however,  more  orange  m  color. 
Grows  into  tree  form. 


360 


List  of  Shrubs 


E.  Japonicus  Linn,  {it a),  the  best  in  form,  with  its  gracefully  droop- 
ing branches  (although  sometimes  upright),  six  to  ten  feet  in  height,  is 
an  evergreen,  with  rink  fruit  and  very  dark,  glossy  leaves,  holding  their 
brilliancy  into  winter;  half  hardy,  but  adapted  to  seashore  planting  as 
far  north  as  New  Jersey.  A  variety,  E.  microphyUtis,  is  valu,  hie  for 
low  hedges. 

£.  radicans  Sieb.  (165),  also  from  Japan,  is  a  low,  prostrate  shrub 
or  climber,  trailing  along  the  ground,  evergreen,  with  small,  myrtle- 
like leaves,  bright  green  in  color,  and  pink  and  scarlet  fruit;  perfectly 
hardy  (not  in  Ottawa),  and  may  be  substituted  with  great  satisfaction 
for  the  less  hardy  English  ivy,  as  a  wall  vine  and  for  ground  cover, 
especially  in  shady  locations.  A  variety,  variegata  (1650),  has  the 
foliage  touched  with  silvery  white. 

E.  alatus  Maxim.  (166),  a  new  introduction  from  Japan,  quite  hardy, 
is  a  large  shrub  (six  to  eight  feet),  of  most  desirable  character,  with 
corky,  winged  branches,  brilliant  scarlet  berries,  fine  foliage,  turning 
gorgeously  into  pii.k  to  dark  red,  and  peculiarly  pinkish-hued  buds. 
It  is  especially  valuable  for  a  specimen  plant  and  accent  work. 

Fraxinus  (Ash),  see  Trees  [List  B]. 

Fringetree  (Chionanthus),  see  Trees  [List  C]. 

Gardenia.  Cape  Jessamine.  All  the  sixty  species  of  this  genus  are 
from  the  southern  latitudes  of  China,  India,  South  Africa,  and  hence 
only  fit  for  sr  ithem  planting  as  far  north  as  Virginia;  but  make  excel- 
lent house  plants  in  the  north.  They  are  evergreen,  witn  deliciously 
fragran',  large,  v;hite,  waxy,  funnel-shaped  flowers,  in  constant  suc- 
cession.   They  are  most  readily  grown,  but  are  very  subject  to  insects. 

The  best  known  are: 

G.  jasminoides  Ellis  (167),  the  true  Cape  Jessamine,  the  bushy  species 
coming  from  China,  which  nurserymen  split  up  into  distinct  forms, 

namely: 

G.  jlorida,  (168),  with  double,  solitary,  terminal  flowers,  beginning 
in  midsummer;  also  an  earlier  flowering  variety,  Fortunei  (i68a); 

G.  radicans  (169),  the  tree  form  from  Japan,  the  earliest  bloomer 
(June),  with  salver-shaped  flowers; 

G.  nilida  (170),  a  low.  compact  (two  to  three  feet),  still  later  flower- 
ing bush  (October  to  November),  with  attractive  glossy,  oblong 
foliage. 

Hibiscus  (Althea).  Mallow.  Some  hundred  species  of  shrubs  and 
herbs  and  a  large  number  of  varieties,  mostly  of  tropical  and  sub- 


Gardenia  —  Hypericum 


361 


tropical  range,  of  which,  besides  several  small  plants,  at  least  one  shrub 
has  become  a  popular  ornament. 

H  SyriacHS  Linn.  (171)  (-^Itliea  Jrutex),  Rose  of  Sharon,  from  Asia, 
but  quite  hardy  into  southern  Ontario,  is  a  shrub  (ten  to  twelve  feet), 
sometimes  in  tree  form,  with  a  rather  stiff,  stragRlinR  habit  unless  prop- 
erly pruned;  with  large,  hollyhock -like  flowers  (August,  September), 
which   in  varieties,  vary  from  white  (alba)  to  pink  (cwrulea),  and  red 
{boule'de/eu),  double  and  single.     It  lends  itself  tc  informal  hedge  use, 
standing  shears  well,  and  then  flowering  freely,  also  useful  as  accents 
and  in  small  gardens,  and  is  ve-y  adaptive  as  regards  soU. 
Hazelnut,  see  Corylus. 
Hercules  Club,  see  Aralia. 
Holly,  see  Trees  [List  C]. 
Hornbeam,  see  Trees,  List  C  (under  Carpinus). 
Hop  Hornbeam,  see  Tiees,  List  C   (under  Ostrya). 
Hypericum.  St.  Johns  Wort.    A   very   large   genus   (two   hundred 
species)   of   composite,   heri>aceous   plants,   shrubs,  and   trees,   from 
Europe,   Asia,  and   America,  not  all   hardy.    Several  small  to  very 
small  shrubs  are  attractive  because  of  their  small,  or  at  least  narrow, 
foliage.    The  large,  showy,  yellow  flowers,  appearing  late  in  summer 
or  fall,  are  persisting,  which  is  their  special  recommendation.    They 
are  useful  in  small  gardens  and  lawns  for  edging,  and  as  a  substitute 
for  turf.     Althcigh  they  ar2  capable  of  thriving  in  poor  soils  and  m 
partial  shade,  they  arc  short-lived. 

*  H.  Kalmianum  Linn.  (172),  the  native  St.  John's  Wort,  from  the 
Great  Lake  region,  is  a  low  (two  to  four  feet),  spreading  bush,  with 
dense  foliage,  of  linear,  long  (two  inches),  bluish-green  leaves,  and 
g'ossy,  yellow,  dandelion -like  flowers  in  dusters,  appearing  in  August 
and  continuing  long,  it  is  shade-endurinj;,  and  perhaps  the  hardiest 
and  best,  ver>'  distinct  and  attractive. 

H.  aureum  Bart.  (173),  is  a  lower  (two  to  three  feet),  not  so  hardy, 
shrub,  of  southern  range,  with  larger  (two  inches),  showier  flowers 
than  the  preceding,  and  as  late  and  persistent. 

*H.  Moserianum  \n(>6  (174).  Go'J  Flouer,  is  still  lower,  almost 
diminutive,  semi-hardy  into  Nt  a-  England,  with  immense  (two  to  two 
and  a  half  inches),  rich  golden  flowers,  with  crimson  stamens,  blooming 
all  the  season;  it  is  perhaps  the  most  graceful,  with  long,  slender  stems, 
drooping  at  the  tips  and  densely  foliaged.  It  is  splendid  for  rockeries, 
like  the  others. 


n 


362 


List  of  Shrubs 


n  ■ 

n 


ir    prolificum  Linn.  (175)  and  //.  damflonim  Pursh.  (176),  with 
smaller  flowers,  are  larger  in  stature  (four  to  six  feet),  and  usually 
earlior  bloomers. 
Ilex,  see  Holly. 

Laburnum,  see  Trees  [List  B].  . 

Lagerstrcemia.  L.  Imlica  Linn.  (177),  Crape  Myrtle  or  Fnnged 
Uvrtlr  from  China,  a  shrub  (twenty  to  twenty-five  feet),  and  L.  flos- 
reiimr,  from  India,  a  tree  (up  to  sixty  feet),  are  hardy  only  in  the  South 
half  hardy  in  the  Middle  States;  with  larRe,  beautiful  panicles  of 
unique  bright  pink  and  rose-color  flowers,  blooming  from  spnng  to  mid- 
summer, found  planted  in  ever)-  dcx^ryard  in  the  South,  and  may  be 
used  in  protected  places  as  far  north  as  Baltimore. 
Maple,  see  Trees  [List  B]    (under  Acer). 

Magnolia,  see  Trees  [List  C].  r    u-  u 

Myrica.  Wax  M  vrtle.  A  large  genus,  of  many  species,  three  of  which 
from  America  are  most  useful,  esix^rially  where  infertile,  barren,  and 
exposed,  hopc:..,s  si)Ots  are  to  be  .ckly  and  permanendy  covered 
with  low  shrubber%-,  for  they  arc  indiflerent  to  the  soil  and  to  the  sun, 
hardv  from  north  to  south,  especially  in  the  ocean  breezes,  and  have 
a  most  tenacious  root  svstem.  Although  of  small  ornamental  value, 
their  rich,  dark  green  foliage  and  rounded  form  is  pleasing,  and  their 
bluish,  waxv  berries  interesting. 

M  Carolinensis  Mill.  (178),  Wax  Myrtle,  the  most  common,  from 
Nova  Scotia  to  Alabama,  is  also  the  best  for  the  purposes  stated;  grow- 
ing from  one  to  four  feet,  and  on  favorable  sites  to  ten  feet  high,  with 
dark  green,  lustrous,  fragrant  foliage,  and  very  waxy,  bluish-white 
berries  hanging  into  winter. 

M  iComptonia)  asplcnifolia  Linn.  (179),  the  Sweet  Fern,  of  even 
wider  distribution  and  of  lower  stature,  excels  the  former  by  reason 
of  its  fcm-like  foliage,  and  beautiful,  delicate  flowers,  which  render  .t 
attractive.     It  is  at  the  same  time  singulariy  adaptive. 

M.  Gale  Linn.  (180),  Sweet  Gale,  of  northern  range,  also  has  a  pleas- 
ing, partlv  toothed  foliage,  and  fragrant  flowers,  appearing  before  the 
leaves;  an  interesting  plant  in  the  foreground  of  taller  shrubs. 
Osage  Orange,  see  Trees  [List  C]  (under  Toxylon). 
Ostrya,  see  Trees  [List  C]. 
Paulownia,  see  Trees  [List  C]. 
Rhus,  see  Trees  [List  B]. 
Ribes.    Flowering  Currants.    Of  the  sixty  or  seventy  species,  mdige- 


m 


Lagerstroemia  —  Vitex 


3(>3 


nous  to  all  continent. ,  mostly  of  mountain  habitat,  there  arc  at  least 
three  that  have  ornamental  value,  besides  those  cultivated  for  their 
fruit,  and,  :Jnce  they  are  very  easy  of  cultivation,  and  frugal  in  their 
demands  on  the  soil,  they  may  be  used  to  advantage  for  their  foliage, 
flower,  and  fruit.  They  are  rather  liable  to  mildew  and  various  insects, 
which  can  be  prevented,  the  former  by  spraying,  the  latter  by  hellebore 
and  sulphur. 

R.  alpinum  Linn.  (i8i).  the  European  Mountain  Currant,  a  compact, 
shapely  bush,  two  to  three  feet,  and  very  hardy,  has  pale  yellow  flowers 
in  erect  clusters  (May),  and  very  showy,  scarlet,  tasteless  fruit.  A 
variety,  aureum  (i8ia),  has  yel'-  n  fc'iage. 

R.  aureum  Pursh.  (182),  t  native  Buffalo  Currant  (four  to 

eight  feet),  spreading,  with  *     ,  ..>bcd,  shiny  leaves,  bright  yellow 

flowers  (May)  and  dark  bb      .  s  pcr»iaps  the  best,  being  hardy 

everywhere.     A  cut-leaved  v...,-..,  tenni     mm  (182a),  is  less  hardy. 

R.  Americanum  Mill,  (floridum)  (183),  tuc  Black  Currant,  also  native, 
and  of  wide  distribution,  has  greenish-whitc  flowers  in  large  racemes, 
dark  fruit  and  fine  lobed  foliage. 

R.  speciosum  Pursh.  (184),  from  California,  the  most  showy  bright 
red  fuchsia-flowered  gooseberry,  is  unfortunately  not  hardy  in  the 
north. 

Sassafras,  see  Trees  [List  C]. 

Stuartia.  Two  species,  native  of  the  mountains  of  the  southeastern 
United  States,  are  desirable  for  their  large,  creamy-white,  camellia- 
like flowers  and  their  rich  brij^ht  green  foliage  of  large  leaves,  which 
assumes  most  brilliant  autumn  shades.  They  are  only  half  hardy  in 
New  England,  and  require  a  rich  soil. 

S.  pentagyna,  eight  to  twelve  feet,  very  large  flowers  (July,  August), 
creamy-white,  fluted  sepals,  with  orange-colored  anthers  and  oval 
leaves. 

5.  virginica  Car.  (186)  (Malachodemlron),  six  to  eight  feet,  flowers 
(May,  June,  July,  August  in  the  north),  with  purple  filaments  and 
oblong  leaves,  has  the  largest  and  showiest  flowers. 

Sumach,  see  Trees  [List  B],  (under  Rhus). 

Tamarix,  see  Trees  [List  C]. 

Vitex.  V.  Agnus-castus  Linn.  (187),  Chaste  Tree,  one  of  some  sixty 
species  of  the  V'erbena  family,  is  a  small,  neat  shrub  (three  to  six  feet) 
from  southern  Europe,  sometimes  growing  into  tree  form.  It  is  only 
half  hardy  north  of  Pennsylvania,  with  terminal  panicles  of  light  lilac 


3^4 


Selected  Lists 


pointed  leaflets. 

SELECTED   LISTS  FOR  SPECIAL  PURPOSES 
The  foUowing  Us.,  may  aid  in  suKges.ing  ,he  sekc.b.  of 

mate  or  m  a  dr;  or  «et  »  _      >  ,;,;„„,  ,„a  eU- 

're'rr::;  a      -,-:S  .  many  gradations  tha.it 
nils  easy  to  Judge  how  far  a  given  speces  may  be 

"where  all  species  of  a  genus  cited  i.  the  Preceding  'bjs 
Z  the  same'characteristics,  only  the  genus  name  .s  gtven. 

DESIRABLE   STREET  TREES 

The  width  of  the  street,  besides  the  points  dj^"^^  ™ 

i,o„lrl  be  taken  into  consideration  in  selecting 

page  200,  should  be  taken  1  ^uimately  attain 

srb:bietra:~ 

at  all,  calling  for  smaller  to  medtum-stzc^l  material.    The 
Lquence  indicates  somewhat  the  relafve  values. 


Trees  and   Shrubs  with  Colored   Foliage     365 

dasystyla;  Liriodendron  Uilipift-ra;  Clymnocladus  Canadensis;   Liquid- 

amlKir  styraciflua. 

Medium-sized  trees:  Qucrcus  imbricaria,  Phcllos;  Ulmus  fulva,  mon- 
tana;  Acer  platanoides,  rubrum;  .f.sculus  glabra,  octandra;  Ccltis 
ocri.lentalis;  Sophora  jajKinica,  Fopulus  monilifera;  Gleditsia  triacan- 
thus,  inermis;  Robinia  |)seudacacia. 

Small-sized  trees:  Acer  camjKstre;  ^sculus  Favia;  Salix  pentandra 
(laurifolia);  Fraxinus  viridis;  Cladrastis  tinctoria;  Ostrya  virginica; 
Sorbus  Americana,  aucuparia. 


TREES    AND    SHRUBr    WITH   COLORED 
FOLIAGE 

There  is  a  great  range  of  color  variation  in  green  foliage, 
whic*^    makes    possible    most  pleasing  and  artistic  effects, 
ranging  from  the  dark,  lustrous,  evergreen  foliage  of  the  ever- 
green magnolia  and  holly,  or  the  dark,  equally  lustrous,  but 
not  evergreen  Red  Oak  and  the  less  lustrous  Black  Oak,  or 
among  shrubs,  Kalmia  and  Rhododrendjr  through  all  grada- 
tions and  shades  of  lighter  hues,  as  represented  by  Basswood, 
Tulip-tree,  Ash,  to  the  almost  silvery  whiteness  t  i  the  foliage 
of  Silver  Maple,  of  the  olive  family  and  of  some  of  the  willows. 
Through  the  seasons,  these  shades  vary,  but  each  species 
retains  characteristic  colors,  varied  to  some  extent,  it  is  true, 
by  situation  ^dry  or  humid)  and  weather  conditions,  until 
the  final  fall  coloring  bursts  out  into  glory.     These  varia- 
tions can   hardly  be  described,  but    must  be   studied    in 

Nature. 

In  addition  to  these  color  variations  common  in  Nature, 
there  :u-e  special  creations,  mainly  of  nurserymen's  produc- 
tion, which  exhibit  abnormal  coloration  of  foliage,  namely 
purple  to  red  of  varying  hues,  yellow  or  golden,  white  or  sil- 
very, or  variegated.  Some  have  the  underside  of  heir 
leaves  so  colored  (white)  as  to  change  the  whole  tone  of  the 


366 


Selected   Lists 


foliage.    If  used  with  discretion,  this  colored  fcUage  imparts 
interest,  variety,  and  artistic  effects. 


Red  Hues: 
Acer  Schwfitllfri,     Reitenbachi, 

Worlei,  polymorphum  forms; 
Berberis  vti'^aris  atrnpttrpurea; 
Betula  airo purpurea  ; 
Corylus    X'dliina  purpurea; 
Pirns  Simiisis  foliis  rubris,  and 

Niedzivdzkyana; 
Primus  Pissardii; 
Quercus     robur     purpurrscens, 

atropurpurca. 

Yellow  or  Golden  Hues: 
Buxus  sempenirens  aurea; 
Chatwrcypcris   (Ketinispora) 

av.rca; 
Sambucus  nigra  aurea; 
Spircra  opulifolia  aurea; 
Viburnum  lentago  aurea. 


White  and  Silvery  Hues,  or 
Variegated: 
Abies  concolor, 
Cedrus  Atlantica  glauca; 
Picca  pungens,  Kosteriar.a,  Par- 

ryana; 
Populus  alba; 

Quercus  ilicifol-a,  prinoides; 
Tilia  argenlea; 
Amurpha  canescens; 
Azalea  mollis; 

Buxus  sempenirens  argenlea; 
Corr.us   Sibcrica    variegala, 

Sptrlhi; 
Klaagnus  argev'ea; 
Evonymus  variegala; 
Salix,  various; 
Sambucus  nigra  variegala; 
Shepherdia  argenlea. 


fl 

V. 

V 


EVERGREEN    BROAD-LEAVED   TREKS   AND   SHRUBS 


Buxus  sempervtrens; 

Berberis  (Mahonia)  Amureitsis, 

Wallichiana,  ilici/olia ; 
Cassandra    calyculata     (nearly 

evergreen); 
Clelhra  alnifolia. 
Coloneasler  horizontalis,  micro- 

phyllum,  Simoni; 
Cralagus  pyracanlha; 
Daphne  cneorum,  laureola; 
EJceagnus  macrophylla,  reflexa; 
Erica; 
Evonymus  Japonica,  radicans; 


Gardenias- 
Ilex  opaca,  aquifolium; 
Kalmia; 

Leucothoe  Calesbici; 
lAgustrum  Sinense,  Japonicum. 
Lonicera  Jragranlissima; 
Magnolia  faiida; 
Osmanllius; 

Pierir   '  Hhunda,  .Japonica; 
Qiu      ..  virginiana,  chrysokpis; 
Symphoricarpus  vu'garis; 
Viburnum  Tiniis. 


F 


I'll.  .U.- 


Trees  and   Shrubs  with   Colorec?   Tw"  »s      36; 


TREES  AND  SHRUBS  WITH 

OR 

Rf.d: 

l^irkris    canadensis,     alropur- 

purea; 
Cornus   sanguinea,   stolonifera, 

alba; 
Salix  Candida,  decipitns; 
Tilia; 

Leucotlioi'  racemosa; 
Berberis    canadensis,     atropur- 

purea; 
Pirus  N iedzivetzkyana. 


SPECIALLY  COLORED  TWIGS 
STEMS 

Purple: 
Ciirnus  amomum; 
Salix  nigra,  Scharfenbrrgi. 

Yki.u)w: 
Klaagnus  (shading  to  whit'" 
Salix  vitcllina,  aurea,  decipiens 
(shading   to   red),    Voronesh 
(deep  yello,,),   Niobe  (lighv 
yellow); 
Sassafras  (shading  to  ^    \-\). 


Brown,  Rf.u  Brown,  Brownish 

Rkd: 
belitla  alba,  papyri/era  vyoung 

stems  and  twigs); 
Elaagnus       Ion  gi  pes,      reflexa 

(bronze); 
Evanymus  (green  to  brown); 
Osirya  virginica; 
Rosa  lucida. 
Salix  lucida ; 
Spi-cra  salici/olia,  bracteata,  su- 

perba; 
Viburnum  tontentosum. 


Green: 
Acer  negundo; 
Cornus  alternijolia; 
Salix  fragilis,  purpurea  (olive); 
Evonymus. 

White: 

Betula  alba,  papyri/era  (stems), 

lulea     (yellowish     silvery); 
Elaagnus     mrcrophyllum    (sil- 
very), umbellata  (yellowish); 
Salix  hirta  (soft  gray). 

Black: 
Cercis  Canadensis. 


SHRUBS  WITH    COLORED   FLOWERS 


Pink,  Rose,  Red  Hues: 
Abelia  serrala; 
Andromeda  polifolia; 
Azalea,  various. 
Calluna  vulgaris; 
Colutea  cruenta; 


Crala-gus  Crus-galli; 

Des  modiu  m  penduli/olium ; 

Di.'nnlla  Jlorida; 

Evonymus  atropurpureus  (dark 

purple); 
Hibiscus  Syriacus; 


368 


Selected  Lists 


Hydrangea  quercifolia; 

Kalnra; 

Lagirslrwmia; 

Loniceni    Hildelmndiana,   spi- 

nosa  (purple); 
Magnolia,  various; 
Pieris,  various; 
Pirus,  various; 
Prunus  Japonica,   Amygdalns, 

Armeniaca; 
Rosa,  various; 
Rhododendron  Catawbiense; 
Sambucus  racemosa; 
Spircea,  various; 
Symphoricarpus  racenwsus; 
Syringa  Charles  X ,  Charles  Joly; 
Tamarix,  various; 

Yellow  to  Brownish  Hues: 
Abclia  trijiora; 
Azalea,  various; 
Berberis,  various; 
Carragana; 


ColuHa; 

CytisHs; 

Diervilla  grandijlora; 

Elaagnus  angiistijulia; 

Forsythia; 

Hypericum; 

Laburnum; 

Lonicera  j'ragrantissima; 

Magnolia  Kobus; 
Shepherdia; 
Symplocos  tindoria. 

Bllish  Hues,  and  Varied: 

Amorpha; 

Calycanthus; 

Daphne; 

Hydrangea  paniculata,  Otaska, 

Thunbergi; 
Magnolia       obovata,      gracilis 

(purple); 
Rhododendron; 
Syringa,  various. 


SHRUBS   WITH    STRIKING   COLORED   FRUIT 


Red  Hues: 

Berberis  vulgaris,  Thunbergi; 
Celast.us  scandens; 
Coioneaster; 
Cratcegus,  various; 
FJceagnus  longipes; 
Evonymus  alatus,  Americanus, 
atropurpureus,  radicans; 

Ilex; 

Lonicera  fragranlissima,  tartar- 

ifa,  etc.; 
Magnolia,  various; 
Pirus,  various; 


Prun us  Pen  nsylva n ica ; 

Rhamnus  frangula  (turning 
black); 

Rhus  hirta,  glabra,  semialata, 
Europea  (orange),  Japon- 
ica; 

Ribes  alpinum; 

Rosa,  various: 

Sambucus  puhens,  racemosa; 

Shepherdia  argenlea; 

Symphoricarpus  vulgaris; 

Viburnum  lantanoidcs,  Lantana, 
Opulus. 


■jjLHui -ir  .cr 


Trees  and   Shrubs  with  Colored   Fruit       369 


Blue,  Purple  to  Black  Hues: 
Cormis,  various; 
Ligustrum  vulgare; 
Loniccra   involucrala,    oblongi- 

folia,  ,.vruka; 
Myrica; 
Rhamnus  frangula,  Purshiam; 

Ribes  aureum; 

Sambucus  canadensis,  nigra; 
Symplocos  cratcegoides: 
Viburnum     lentago,      dentata, 
Tinus. 


Whitish  and  Yellow  Hues: 
Elieagiius    argenka,    umbellata 

(amber),  macrophylla,  angus- 

tijolia; 
Myrica; 

Pirus  coronaria,  prttnifolia; 
Prunus  anguslifolia; 
Samb2icus  racemosa; 
Symphoricarpus  racemosa. 


SHRUBS   BLOOMING   OUT 

Early  Bloomers  (March,  April): 
Abelia  spatliulaia,  serrala; 
Amelanchier  Canadensis; 
Azalea  amcena,  mollis; 
Cassandra; 
Cornus; 
Crakegus; 

Daphne  mezereiim,  cneorum; 
Deutzia  paniflora; 
Exochorda; 
Forsythia; 
Halesia; 
Lonicera  fragrantissima.  Stand- 

ishi; 
Magnolia,    various,    especially 

skllata; 
Pieris  ligustrina,  Mariana,  Jap- 

optica,  nitida; 
Pirus; 
Prunus; 
Shepherdi'a; 
Spircea    Thunbergi,   parvifolia, 

prunijoUd,  etc.; 
Sorbus; 


OF   REGULAR   SEASON 

Syringa  oblata. 

Midsummer    Bloomers     (July, 

August) : 
Abelia  rupestris,  triflora; 
^senilis  macrostachya; 
Amo'plia; 
Azalea  calendulacea,  arborescens, 

viscosa; 
Coluka; 
Diervilla; 
Deutzia  Lemonei; 
Diervilla  fiorida,     nana,  Kos- 

teriana; 
Evonymus  microphyllus; 
Hydrangea  Thunbergi; 
Kalmia     angustifolia,    glauca, 
nana ; 

Leucothoe  Catesbai; 

Elceagnus  Canadensis; 

Erica; 

Hibiscus; 

Hydrangea: 

Hypericum; 


37° 


Selected   Lists 


Kalreuteria; 

Lagerstrivmia; 

Ligiislrum  Ibota; 

Lonicera  tartarica,  Alberta; 

Rhus  semilaata; 

Rosa  rugosa; 

Spiraa  aruefolia,  Anthony  Wat- 

erer,  salicifolia,  tomentosa; 
Sttiartia  penlagyna; 
Zenobia  speciosa. 


Late  Bloomers  (September,  Oc- 
tober) : 
Clethra  alnijolia; 
Desmodium; 
Dien'illa      amabilis,      arboreal 

grandijlora; 
Gardenia  nitida; 
Hibiscus  Syriacus; 
Viburnum  Tinus; 
Vitcx. 


DWARF  SHRUBS 


Andromeda  polijolia; 
Berberis  canadensis; 
Chamtccy Paris  pygmcra; 
Caragana  pygmcra; 
Cotoneastcr  horizontalis,  micro- 

phylla; 
Cytisus  purpureas; 
Daphne  laureola; 


Lonicera  cccrulea,  involucrata: 
Myrica  asplenifolia; 
Philadelphus  microphyllus; 
Pieris  Japonica,  nitida; 
Rhus  copallina; 

Syringa    Chinensis,    pubescens, 
Marie  Legraye. 


SHADE-END^^RING    SHRUBS  SUITABLE  FOR   USE  IN 
UNDER-PLANTING 

Usually  all  the  species  of  a  genus  i^ssess  the  same  characteristics 

as  to  need  of  light. 

Azalea,  Berberis,  Buxus,  Calycanthus,  Clethra,  Comus,  Coton- 
easter,  Cvtisus,  Daphne,  Evonymus,  Halesia,  Hyi)ericum,  Hex,  Kalmia, 
Ligustrum,  Leucothoe,  Lonicera,  Osmanthus,  Philadelphus,  Rhodo- 
dendron, Sambutus,  Symphoricarpus,  Taxus,  Viburnum. 

TREES   AND   SHRUBS   COMPARATIVELY   RESISTANT   TO 

SMOKE 

Of  conifers,  Pimis  austriaca  appears  to  suffer  least.  Of  broad- 
leaved  tree:^,  specie^  ■.>!  .Esculus,  Amelanchier,  Betula,  Cornus,  Cra- 
tffigus,  Evon'ymus,  Fraxinus,  Ilex,  Laburnum,  Liriodendron,  Platanus, 
Populus,  Salix. 


Trees  and   Shrubs  for  Various  Sites     371 

Of  shrubs,  most  of  the  Heath  family,  Berberis,  Buxus,  Cotoneaster, 
Cytisus,  Deutzia,  Hibiscus,  Hyix-ricum,  Ligustrum,  Philadelphus, 
Ribes,  Rhus,  Syringa,  Viburnum. 


TREES    AND    SHRUBS    FOR    SEASHORE    AND    EXPOSED 

SITES 


Abies  Ceplialonica,  Hookeriana, 

coucolor; 
Cupressits  macrocarpa; 
Juniperus  virginiana; 
Finns  aitslridca,  laricio,  cembra, 

insignis,  pinaster,  pumilio; 
Thuja; 
Thuya  psis; 
Ilex; 
Platanus; 
Popiilus; 

Querciis,  several  species; 
Pruniis  maritima; 
Rhamnus; 

Salix  pentandra,  and  others; 
Tamarix; 


Tilia;     - 

Alnus; 

Baccharis; 

Berberis; 

Buxus; 

Cytisus; 

Elceagnus; 

Erica; 

Evonymus; 

Leucathoc; 

Ligustrum  ovalijolium; 

Myrica  Gale; 

Ribes; 

Rosa  rugosa; 

Sambucus: 

Spircea. 


TREES  AND  SHRUBS  FOR  SWANH^Y  AND  WET  SOILS 

Taxodium  distich  urn; 

Thuja; 

Acer  ruhrum,  saccharinum; 

Alnus  glutinosa,  maritima; 

Aralia  Chhtrnsis; 

Azalea  viscosa; 

Qucrcus  alba,  bkolor,  palustris, 

Phellos,  aquatica; 
Cassandra  calyculata; 
Leucnthol-  raccmosa; 
Lonicera  oblongifolia; 
Pieris; 
Viburnum. 


Abies  balsamea; 
Chamacyparis; 
Cu  press  us; 
Larix  Americana; 
Picea  nigra,  alba; 
Pinui  divaricata; 
Betula  alba,  nigra; 
Corylus  avellana; 
Fraxinus  nigra; 
Hicoria  laciniosa; 
Nyssa  sylvatica; 
Fopulus,  most  species; 
Salix,  most  species; 


372 


Selected   Lists 


TREES  AND  SHRUBS  FOR  SANDY  AND  DRY  SOILS 


i 


Many  of  these  are  also  fit  for  wet  soils. 

Atnelanchier; 

Betula; 

Cratagus; 

Ilex; 

Juniperus; 

Pinus  divaricata,  sylvestris; 

Primus; 

Quercus; 

Sorbus; 

Tamarix; 

Amorpha; 

Arbutus; 

Baccharis; 

Berberis; 

Caragana; 


Clelhra; 

Cornus  circinala; 

Cyiisus; 

Deutzia; 

Erica; 

Ligiistrum; 

Myrka; 

Philadcl pints  microphyllus; 

Rhus; 

Rosa  rugosa; 

Salix; 

Sassafras; 

Shrpherdia; 

Symphorkarpus; 

Zenobia. 


TREES  AND  SHRUBS  FOR  CALCAREOUS  OR  LIMESTONE 

SOILS 


Abies  nobilis,     Nordmanniana, 

Pinsapo; 
Amelanchier ; 
Berberis; 
Buxus; 

Chamcpcyparis; 
Cornus; 
Cotoneaster; 
Cralagus; 
Daphne; 
Fagus; 
Hibiscus; 
Hypericum; 
Juniperus; 


Ilex; 
Kalmia; 
Larix; 
Ligustrum; 

Pinus  austriaca,  laricio,  sylves- 
tris; 
Populus; 

Prunus; 

Rhododendron; 

Ribes; 

Symphoricarpus; 

Taxiis; 

Viburnum  lantana. 


^*.„/4t  'IS-    -. 


Trees  and   Shrubs  for  Various  Sites      373 


TREES    AND    SHRUBS   FOR   PEATY   AND    BOGGY    SOILS 


Most  of  the  Heath  (dmily ; 

Larix; 

Behila; 

Lonicera  ohlongifolia, 

Myrica; 

Picea; 
.    Tsuga; 


Thuja: 

Viburnum; 

and  the  pp'ennial  herbs,  Epi- 

gaa,  GauUheria,  Ledum,  Men- 

ziesia,  Vaccinium. 


SHRUBS  FIT  FOR  ROCK   GARDENS 


Amorpha; 
Baccharis; 
Celastrus; 
Cotoneaster; 

Cupressus    thuyoides,    pilifera, 
obtusa; 


Cryptomeria  elegans; 

Lonicera  sdnosa; 

Ilex; 

Juniperus  communis,  nana,  Sa- 

bina ; 
Philadelphus  microphyllus. 


•l 


^■■n 


BRIEF  LIST  OF   BOOKS   ON  COGNATE 
SUBJECTS 

I  L  H.  Bailey.  Cyclop.edia  of  American  Horticulture,  iqoo. 
4  vols.     The  best  reference  book  for  species  and  varieties  of  trees 

and  shrubs. 

2.  N.  L.  Britton.  North  American  Trees.  1908.  To  be  coiisulted 
for  the  native  arborescent  flora. 

7  R  B  Hough.  Handbook  of  the  Trees  of  the  Northern  United 
States  and  Canada.  1907.  Excels  in  fine  pnotographic  illustra- 
tions. 

4  Saunders  &MACOUN.  Catalogue  of  Trees  and  Shrubs.  Bulletin  2. 

Central  Experimental  Farm,  Ottawa,  1899.     To  be  consulted  as  to 
hardiness  of  trees  and  shrubs. 

5  F   E.  Clements.     Plant  Physiology  and  Ecology,  1907.     VViP  .j€ 

found  of  interest  by  those  who  wish  to  expand  their  knowleclgc  on 
the  points  raised  in  Chapter  II. 

6.  L.  H.  Bailey.    The  Pruning  Book,  1898.     Refers  especia'      o  the 

pruning  for  fruit. 

7.  Tree   Surgery.    Fiftieth   Annual   Report   of   Massachusetts 
State  Board  of  Agriculture.    1902. 

E.  G.  Lodem.^n.  The  Spraying  of  Plants,  1908.  The  most  com- 
prehensive volume  on  the  subject. 

Spraying  Mixtures  and  Machinery;  Where  and  How  to  Spray. 
Bulletin    193.     North    Carolina    Agricultural    Experiment    Station. 

1906. 

Fungicides.  Insecticides,  and  Spraying  Directions.  BuUetm  123. 
Massachusetts  Agricultural  Experiment  Station.     1908. 

Shade  Trees.  Bulletin  125.  Massachusetts  Agricultural  Experi- 
ment Station.     1908. 

Shade    Trees.     Bulletin     205.    Cornell     Agricultural     Experiment 

Station.     1902. 

Street  Trees,  their  Care  and  Preservation.  Bulletin  256,  Cor- 
nell College  of  Agriculture.     1908. 

Felt.  K.  P.  Insects  Affecting  Park  and  Woodland  Trees. 
Albany,  volume  I,  1905;  volume  II,  1906. 

375 


8. 


9- 


10. 


II. 


12. 


13- 


14- 


3/6     Brief  List  of  Books  on  Cognate  Subjects 


'5- 


i6. 


17 


18. 


19 


20, 


21 


Packard,  A.  S.  Insects  Injurious  to  Forest  and  Shade  Trees. 
Washington,  i8go. 

Smith,  J.  B.  Our  Insect  Friends  and  Enemies.  Philadelphia, 
1909. 

Insect  Pests  and  Plant  Diseases.  Bulletin  252.  Cornell  Agricul- 
tural Experiment  Station.     1908. 

The  More  Important  Insects  Affecting  Ohio  Shade  Trees. 
Bulletin  194.     Ohio  Agricultur,,    Experiment  Strtion. 

The  Pests  of  Shade  and  Ornamental  Trees.  Bulletin  47.  Ken- 
tucky Agricultural  Experiment  Station.     1893. 

Diseases  of  Deciduous  Forest  Trees.  Von  Schre'  ^k  &  Perley 
Spalding.  Bulletin  149.  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry,  Washington, 
D.  C.     1909. 

Studies  of  Some  Shade  Tree  and  Timber   Destroying  Fungi. 
Bulletin  193.     Cornell  University  Agricultural  Experiment  Station, 
1901. 
22.   Injury  to  Vegetation  by  Smelter  Fumes.     Bulletin  80.     Bureau  of 
Chemistry,  Washington,  I).  C.     1905- 

Injuries  to  Shade  Trees  from  Fi.ectricity.  Bulletin  91.  Hatch 
Experiment  Station  of  Massachusetts  Agricultural  College.     1903. 

The  Elms  and  their  Diseases.  Bulletin  84.  Kentucky  Agricul- 
tural Experiment  Station.     1899. 

The  Bronze  Birch  Borer.  Bulletin  234.  Cornell  /  •^ricultural 
Experiment  Station.     1906. 

The  Brown-tail  Moth.  Bulletin  122.  New  Hampshire  Agricul- 
tural Experiment  Station.     1906. 

Of  books  or.  landscape  gardening  may  be  mentioned:  Downing's  Land- 
.CAPe  Gardening,  which,  although  old,  contains  still  much  of  value; 
Parsons'  Landscape  Gardening  and  How  to  Plan  the  Home 
Grounds,  which  are  written  on  the  basis  of  long  experience  in  the 
parks  of  New  York.  Maynard's  Landscape  Gardening  as  .\pplied 
to  Home  Decoration  gives  much  common-sense  advice. 


23 


24 


25- 


26. 


27 


WLV  1"  i.ll.  ILTW^^^Bl^gll 


INDEX 

Illustrations  are  indicated  by  an  asterisk  after  the  page  reference. 


Abelr.  Popiiliis,  30T 

Ahrlia,  Honeysuckle.  ,?^f).  ,5.5ft,  ,5'>7- 

^iK);  see  also  Loiiiirra 
Abiis.  I'ir-s,  joo.  213.  224.  22S,  240, 

Aiacia,     210;    .l//'/::/<i.     247.     -MQ; 
Gleditsdiia.    210,    247,    24Q,    505; 

Robinhu  211.  247.  -'4«.  ,^''5'       ""S'' 
Rohinit.     248;       Throlhurned. 
Glcdilsrhid.   24(),    ^65 
,lcfr.   Maples,    211,    264.    i'^y^l- 

57'  a 

Aciiiptation,  process  of,  20-22,  ig», 

200.  i2  7, 

Adirondack  I'oresl  Preserve,  18/ 

Adolescence.  205 

Aeration  of  roots,  20,  24,  28,  57  00, 

77-80,  82,  142 
.£scul:is.  Horse  Chestnuts,  in,  210, 

2S0,  ,564.  3f'5.  .^''9-  i'°  ^ 

/l;7a)i///«5,Treeof  Heaven,  210,  251, 

256,  262 
Air,   need   of,    20,    21,    28;   suj .  y 

limited  by  pavements,  etc.,  33.  80; 

also  53,  82 
Albizzia,  Acacia.  247,  240 
Alcoholic  fermentation  of  cells,  58 
Alder,  Alniis,  61,  6q,  158.  211,  37^' 


Black.    272, 


273  *;    Italian.    2; 


274  ';  Japanese.  275 
Alder-leaf  Buckthorn.  Rbammis.  313 
A      I  fa,  as  fertilizer,  80 
Ah -pice,  Calycanthus.  327,  357.  3^'8. 

370 
Almond,    Pniiius,    212;    FlowennR, 

50s;  Jaiwnese,  303.*  .'04 
,l/)(/<,v.  Alders,  211,  272-275,  371 
Atlhca.  sec  Hibiscus 
Amclanchicr.    Shadbush    or    June- 
berry,  III,  211,  273,  369,  370.  372 
Amorpha,   False   Indigo,  326,    340, 

366,  368,  369,  372.  373 
Andromeda,  326,  333,  3^17.  37o;  see 

also  Cassandra;  Lcucothm;  Pierts; 

Zenobia 


AnRelica  Tree,  Aralia,  210,  252,  371 
".\nnvial  rins,"  7,  8.  17 
Antio|)a.  sec  Spiny  Kim  Caterpillar 
.\ntisei)tic  dressing  for  wounds,  8q, 
q6,   124,   167;  sec  also  Bordeaux 
mixture 
Ants,  131 

Antwerp,  tree  guards  m,  118 
Aphis,  Leaf-dcstroyinR.  321 
Apple.   Finis,  08,    iS4.    212,    294. 
;cXv*  2q(),*  297.*  298.*  325.  347> 
360-369 
.\pple-l)orers,  204 

Apple-family,     attacked     by     fire- 
blight,  5^> 
Apple-tent  caterpillar,  160 
.Vpricot.  305 
Aralia,    Angelica     Tree,    Hercules 

Club,  210,  252,  371 
Araiicaria.  223 

Arborvit*.  Lihoccdrus,  209,  215,  221; 
Thuja,   210,   215,   219,  371,  373; 
Japanese  or  Tom  Thumb.  Tliuy- 
flpsis,  210.  215.  219,*  371;  Pacific 
Coast  or   Incense  Cedar,  Liboce- 
drus.  221 
.\rbutus,  359,  372 
.Xrmy-worms,  164 
.\rro\v-wo(xl.  Viburnum,  340 
Arsenate  of  copper,  sec  Paris  Green 
Arsenate  of  lead,  135-137.  162,  163, 

.\rsenite,  formula,  160;  also  156 
Ash,  Fraxinus,  16.  68,  69,  85,  102, 
122,  154,  161,  210,  253,  365-  370, 
571;  Black,  255;  Blue,  256;  Eng- 
lish, 254.*  25(y,  Flowering,  255.* 
256;  C.reen,  255,  3f>5;  White,  255 
Asparagus-beetle,  156 
Asi)en,     25,     193;     L?rge-toothed, 

Populus,  301 
Assimilation,  process  of,  17,  18,  21 
Atmosphere,  effect  on  growth,  63 
Azalea,  192,  326.  33°-  33i.  335,  3^6- 
371;  Flame,  330.  369;  Tree,  330 


377 


378 


Index 


:iUiiMmmkd, 


Baccharis,  Groundsel,  37.  32^'-  3S6. 

BacltTial  (lisciisc,  50,  89 

Bur- worm,  I'n 

BailinK  fi)r  insect  pests,  144.  ig.i 

Balm     of     tiilcatl,     Poptilns,    m. 

Bandinn  trees  for  IrapprnK  msetts, 

145.  15')-  "'^-  '''5 
Barherry,  Hirhcri.\.  ,57.  ,5-!''.  i5<'-  J.S". 

^()()-(i'iH.  ,^70^,57- 
Bark,    method   of    renewal.    7.  .'7; 
use  in  life  of  tree.  S;  protection, 
^4;    longitudinal    lUt    to    relieve 
water-pressure,  .so;  oho  203 
Bark-I)eetles.  45-  4S.  55.   i^^^-   '4'^- 

148.  I5-^  154 
"Hark-bound,"  8 
Hark-liie.  15°  „     „ 

Bassw(M)d.    77//.J,    58.  f'8,   85.    154. 
ISO.  lOi.   163.  171.  21;,.  3'8-  .5f'4. 
365.    371;     Downy-leaved,    iH); 
\Vhite.  3'0  Q 

Bean  Tree,  Catalpa.  211,  J7» 
Beech.    Carpiiuis.    Blue,    192.    211, 
277;  Water,  211,  277;  /•'"«"^'  >^'' 
25.  50,  f>7.f'8,  102.  122.  154,  >7-2. 
192,' iQV  212,  285,  37^;  t:opi)er. 
20V   28'<';  American.   28O;   Kuro- 
pean,    286*;    Purple  leaved,    sa 
Beech.  Copper 
Bcecher.  Henry  Ward,  quoted 
fleetle-borers.     152-158;     see 

Insect  pests 
Bcrhcris.  Barberry.  37-  3-;''.  35''.  357. 

,,66-3()8.  370-37^       . 
Berli   ,    tree    guards    in,    83.    ii», 


^75 
also 


[21 


29.  275. 


Bdiilii.  Birches.  211 

366.3(17.371-373 
Bilsted.  Liqiiidambar,  212.  28.S.  365 
Biohu  .\rborvita;  or  White  Cedar 

215.  218 


Birch.  16,  25,  68. 
275.  370.  37-^ 
European ,  275 
IQ3,  229,  276. 
276;    Black 


3S8, 


Bittcrnut,  Hicoria.  157 
Bitter-sweet,    Celastrus,    327, 

368,  373 
Black  Klder,  see  Kldcrberry 
Black-knot,  38,  i-'5  ^ 

Bladder   Senna,  Colutea,  327.  340. 

367-369 
Bleeding  Heart,  ,,24 
Blue  stone.  125,  126 
Bole,  branchless,  14.  «8^;  breathinR 

po.es,  20;  imi)rt)per  treatment  of, 

81;  mutilations,  11:;  i//.v"  5 
Bonn,  tree  guards  in.  118 
Bordeaux   mixture.    112,    113..    12.?. 

127,  128,  135;  ^'■''  "'•'"'  •Antisci>tic 

dressing;  Insecticides 
Bordeaux  nozzle,  I39 
Borers,  49.   141.   U*^'.   '47.   «53;  s*"*^ 

oho  Insect  i)csts 
Boston.  MetroiK)lilan  Park  System, 

186,  194;  "/"'  249 
Bowker    Fertilizer    Company,    t3S 

Hole:  145  ""'<' 
Bo\-,  Biixii!:.  60.  211.  276.  343.  .0". 
370-372;    Minorca    or    Japanese, 


91.  158.  163.  211. 
57 ^;  Cherry,  276; 
,67.  371;  White. 
^()6;   Yellow.    193. 
..    see    Birch.    Cherry; 
(Jrav,  see   Binh.  Yellow;  Sweet, 
see  Birch.  Cherry 
Birds.   Insectivorous.    12S,   130;  sec 

also  English  Sjiarrow 
Bisulphide,  163 


Box-elder.  Arer.  161, 


266 


Bran,  Poisoned,  164 

Branch  svstem,  skeleton  of,  203 

Branches.    11-14.    18.    2°'   ^'"'^   ''"'' 

Crown 
Branchless  boles,  14.  182 
Hranchlets.  65.  83,  107,  108;  see  also 

Bole;  Hranches 
Breathing  pores.  20,  44 
Briarwood  i)ipes,  material  for,  329 
Briiial-wrealh.  Spinea.  351 
Bridging.  113 
Broad-leaved    trees.   104,  203,    207, 

209-211.  220,  247-  264;  also  List, 

p.  566 
Bronx  Park.  N.  V.  City.  186 
Broom.  Cylisus.  327.  346.  3f'8.  37° 

Bruoklvn.  X.  Y.,  English  Sparrows 

introduced  into,  130;  also  140,  141 
Brussels,  old  elms  in.  148 
Buch-IIam,    Symplocos,    329,    35j, 

368  ^ 

Buckevc,    .Eseiiliis.    150,    250,   365; 

^f~  '-.lui  Horse  Chestnut 
Buckthorn,  Rhamiius,  213,  313.  3^41 

368,369,371 


Index 


379 


Buds,  concentration  of  living  cells, 
7;  place  in  growth  of  tree,  8,  10-13, 
26;  assimilation,  17;  annual  re- 
juvenation, 29 

Buds,  Dormant,  twssible  develop- 
ment into  branch  14;  pruning  for 
crown,  26;  forming  sprouts  to 
replace  lost  bole,  27;  a/50  59 

Buflfalo  Berry,  Shrphcrdia,  328,  344, 

366,  368,  369,  372 
Burbank,  Luther,  referred  to,  260 
Burlap,  Band  of,  for  trapping  insects, 

14s;  see  also  Banding  trees 
Burning  Bush,  Kvonymus,  359,  367 
Bush  Clover,  Desmodium,  327,  347, 

367,  370 

Bush  Honeysuckle,  Diervilla,   336, 

367-370 

Bulneria,  see  Calycanthus 

Butterflies  and  moths,  157 

Butternut,  66,  257;  see  also  Wal- 
nut 

Buttonwood,  Platanus,  2^9,  364 

Buxus,  Box,  211,  276,  343,  366,  370- 
37i 

Calico  Bush,  332 

California    Nutmeg    tree,    Torreya, 

210,  247 
California  Privet,  Ltgustrum,  343, 

371 
Calluna,  Heath,  327,  331,  367 
Callus,  88,  92,  95,  96,  112,  125 
Call  using,  process  of,  36,  40,  91 
Calycanthus,  Allspice  or  Strawberry- 
bush,  327,  3S7,  368,  370 
Cambium  cells,  growth  at  margm 
of   wound,    92;   division   of,    93; 
relation  to  healing  of  wounds,  98; 
also  7,8,  IS,  17,  27 
Cambium  layer,  annual   rejuvena- 
tion,  29;  parasitic  roots  in,  43; 
larvae  of  bark-beetles  feeding  in, 
45,  49,  147;  injuries  to,  52,  55,  74; 
functions   impeded,  58;    activity 
of,    59,    9S;    winter-killing,    67; 
insect  injury  to,  52-54;  <i'-s<'  88, 

113 

Canadian  Experiment  Farms,  Bul- 
letin on  tests  of  hardiness,  200 

Canker,  40,  67;  see  also  Black-knot; 
Fungi 

Canker-worm,  Spring,  165 


Cape  Jessamine,  Gardenia,  327,  360, 
366,  370 

Capillaries,  79 

CAPKIFOLIACAK,     Honeysuckle 
family,  336 

Carahida",  see  Ground-beetles 

Carasana.   Sila-rian  Pea  Tree,  mo, 
252.  368,  370,372 

CarlK)lic  acid,  146,  148 

Carbolineum,  124 

Carbon,  79 

Carbon  bisulphide,  146 

Carbonic  acid,  17,  126 

CarjK-nter  moth,  163 

CurpinHs,  Hornbeam,  Water  Beech, 
Blue  Beech,  192,  211,  277 

Carroi,  325 

Cascara  sagrada,  313 

Cassandra,    Leatherleaf,    327,    332, 
366,  369,  371 

Castanea,  Chestnut,  211,  277 

Castanopsis,  Pacific  Coast  Chinqua 
pin,  278 

Catalpa,  11,  171,  211,  278 

Caterpillars,  sec  Insect  pests 

Cedar,  Ce«frH5,  209,*  215,  216,*  217,* 
366;  Alaska  Yellow,  Chamacy- 
paris,  209,  218;  Cedar  of  Lebanon, 
Cedrus,  216*;  Deodar,  Cedriis, 
209,  217*;  Incense,  Libocedrus, 
209,  215,  221;  Pencil,  Juniperus, 
209,  21S,  219,  220,  371-373;  R»-'d. 
38;  Silver,  Cedrus,  216,*  366; 
White,  Chammyparis,  209,  215, 
218,  366,  370-372 
Cedrus,  Cedars,  209,  215,  216  *  21''  * 

218-221,  366,  370-372 
Celastrus,    Bitter-sweet,    327,       ■- 

368,  373  .  r        ^ 

Cells,  alcoholic  fermentation  of,  58; 

see  also  Cambium  cells 
Celtis,  Hackberry,  Nettie  Tree,  2:1, 

279.  36s 
Central  Park,  N.  Y.  city,  186 
Cephalolaxus,     Yew,      209,      246,* 

247;  see  also  Podocarpus;  Taxus; 

Torreya 
Cercidiphyllum.  211,  279,  280* 
Crrcis,  Red  Bud  or  Judas  Tree,  iii, 

211,  280,  367 
Chamadaphne.  sec  Cassandra 
Ckamscyparis,  Cedar,  209,  215,,  218, 

366,  370-372 


J 


38o 


Index 


Cherry,  Prunus,  102,  iS4.  »''''  •''4- 
212,  30J,  347;  Bird  or  Pin,  .^06 
,66;    Black    Wild,    305;    t-nKlish 
Bird.  306;  Flowering,  302,    304; 
Mahalcb,  306 

Chestnu*,  Caslanca,  68,  85,  154.  2'  '> 

277 
V  ,  kkadces,  1 30 

Chinaberry,  Mdi.i.  210.  ^"O.    -'f" 
Chinch-bu«s,  i.i,  150 
Chinquapin,  I'icitk  Coast,  C(;s./« 

opsis,  278 
Chionanlhus,  Frinm-  Tree,  211,  JHi 
Chlorine  gas,  7° 
Chlorophyl,  17 
Cicadas,  150.  tu 
Cicindelidw,  aee  Tiger- beetles 
Cladrastis,  Yellow-wood,    210.    253, 

Classification,  with  regard  to  light 
and  shade,  192;  foliage,  207; 
decorative  qualities.  326 

Clethra,  Sweet  Pepnerbush,  327,  332, 

366,  370,  372       ^ 
Clicking-beetles,  148, 
Climate,  adaptation 

21,  22,  24.  34.  202; 

to,  199 
"Clothes  Tree,"  299 
Clover,  80,  32s 
Coal-tar,  89 
Coal-tar  oils,  112 
Coccinellidfe.  see  Lady-bugs 


152.  ^S5 

of   species  to, 

soil  in  relation 


Cockchafers,  152,  155  . 

Collecting  as  means  of  combating 

insect  pests,  195 
Cologne,  tree  guards  in,  118 
Colorado  potato-beetle,  132 
Colutea,  Bladder  Senna,  327.    346, 

367-369 
Comptonia,  see  Myrica 
Conical  outline,  204 
Conifer  type,  103,  104 
Coniferous  trees.  7.  14.  34.  92.  loi, 
ISO,  153.  155.  162.  164,  167,  170, 
172,  177,  178,  189.  191.  194.  203. 
20s,  209,  213,  228,  229,  231,  245. 
306 
Copper  hydrate,  126 
Copper  salt,  126 
Coppice,  193 

Coral   Berry,  Symphmcarpus,  329, 
339>  366, 368-370,  372 


Cornelian  Cherr>-,  Cornus,  283 
Cornus,  Dogwoods,  211,  281,  366. 

367,  369,  370.  372 
CorylHs,   Hazelnut,   327.   358-   366, 

37' 
Cotoneasler,  347.  3^'''.  3'>8.  37C^373 
Cotton  batting  for  trapping  insects, 

144;  see  also  Banding  trees 
Cottonwood,    Poputus,    212,    300. 

Cottony  cushion  scale,  151,  234 
Cottony  mai)le  scale,  151 
Crab-apple,  294 

Cranberry  Bush,  Viburnum,  340 
Crape   Myrtle,   Lagerstramia,   328, 

?62,  368.  370 
Cr\it(e!:,Hs,  Thorn  Trees,  Hawthorn, 

111,  212,  283,  366-370,  372 
CreciHTs,  44 
Creosote  oil,  159.  if'2 
Crown,  definition,  5;     development, 
8,  II.  13,  «S-i7.  5Q.  '02;  relation 
to  root  system.   19.  32;  affected 
by  light,    25,    26;   indications  of 
disease,    52;    winter-killing,    66; 
balance  with  root  system  neces- 
sary,   99;    height    from    ground, 
loi;  transplanting.  169;  value  of 
nursery    stock,    170;    changes   of 
form  with  age,  205;  also  200,  203 
Crude  petroleum,  145 
Cryptomcria,  373 
Cuckoos,  130 
Cucumber-beetle,  156 
Cucumber  Tree,  Magnolia,  21^2,  289 
Cuiminghamia,  209,  :>23.  221  * 
Cupressus    Cypress,   209,  215.   217, 

371.373  .  „.,  Q  A 

Currant,  Flowering,  Ribes,  32S,  362, 

371.  372;  also  59.  15''.  Black,  363; 

Buffalo,  363,  369;  Mountain,  363, 

368 
Cutwornis,  148 
Cydonia,  see  Pirus,  294 
Cymes,  324,  325 
Cypress,  Cupressus,  209,  215.  217, 

371,  373;  Bald,  Taxodium,  61,  65, 

177,    210,    213,    215,    221,    371; 

Lawson's     Chamacy  parts,     218; 

Monterey,  Cupressus,  217 
Cytisus,    Broom,    Laburnum.    210. 

259,*   261,  327.   346,   3&8.   370- 

372 


iPRvns" 


mm 


^H 


Index 


381 


Daphne,  iqz.  .I^S-  .W7,  .?58.  .^'>^.  3^8- 

370,  ?,'i 
Davis,  1-.  I).,  "Ornamental  Shrubs" 

qii  ti.d    ,\2(k  .5,v? 
Death  >.i  trees,  ^g,  ,\o.  1. . 
Deiiduoiis  trt-      154,  155.  '''2-  ''•4. 

16O,  i7'>,  iQi,  KM.  ^03.  ■"4.  •»-'<). 

2,H.  ^^^'  .^o''.  330.  ,i?5.  34>< 
Defoliation,  20,  45;  mc  h/*"  Assimi- 
lation; Inseit  injury 
Demlrolene,  145.  i47.  154.  '.v^ 
Dendrosiope,  105 
Des  Cars,  A.,    Iriatise  on  Pruning 

lorest  i'ndOrnanientarirees,  105 

ami  note 
DcsmotUiim,     'I'i(  k     Trefoil,     Hush 

Clover,  327,  .?47.  3''7.  37o 
Destruction  by  storm,  ji 
I)e\eK)pmenl  of  trees,  re(|uircmcnls 

for,  21) 
Deiitzia,  .527.  ,^5.5,  .jfx),  ,?7i.  37^ 
Dia>;nosis,  dilVu  ulty  of,  ,^2 
Dichoixxii^'.  type,  20,5 
Dienilla,    Bush    Honeysuckle,   ,v?6, 

36;-37o 
Di(rc' -us  trees,  287,  316,  350 
Diospyrus,    Persimmon,    172,    212, 

285 
Disease,  29,  51,  215;  sir  also  bac- 
terial  disease;    Physiological  dis- 
sease;  Spot  diseases 
Disinfectants,    126;    scr  also   .Anti- 
septic   dressing;    Hordeuux    mix- 
ture 
Disparene    135,  and  note 
Dockmackie,  Vihiirniim.  340 
Dogwood,   Cor  mis,    150,    iq2,    211, 
325,  366,  369,  370,  372;  .Mternate 
leaf,  282,  367;  Flowering,  281 
Douglas  Fir,  Psendotsug,a,  24,  228, 

Dragon  Trees  on  Island  of  Teneriffe, 

121 
Dragon's  Head,  325 
Drainage,  vg,  199 
Drooping  trees,  203 
Dropsy,  58 

Drouth,  effects  of,  59,  60,  64,  215 
Dwarf  forms,  203,  208,  218,  250,  252, 

253,  2f)2,  271,  277,  291,  298,324, 

oj'^.  io^^  3.34.  337.  ii^,  345.  347. 
351.  353,  354,  356,  359;    'wList, 

P-370 


F.bony,  Dimtfsrus.  211,  285 
Fmnomic  tree-planting,  198 
Fglantine.  349 
KUraRHiis,  327,  341.  342.  3ft<>-3^. 

371 
KIderberry,  Samhaais,  328,  336,  338, 

^M).  3'''>.  3"8  37' 
Flectricity,  dangers  of,  a,  62,   71, 

7-! 

Flliplical  outline,  204 

Ivim,  I'lmiis,  i(),  58,  ()3,  f)g,  113,  i^ft, 
i.ic),  i')i  id.s,  197,  204,  2n,  364, 
3(15;  CamiKrdown,  ,\22;  Knglish, 
321;  FuroiMjan,  205 ;  SlipiK'ry,  321; 
Wahoo  or  Winged,  321;  White, 
320;  Wych,  321;  Red,  see  Elm, 
Slippery 

r.lm-lcaf  beetles,  54,  156,  197 

Fnduiance  of  trees,  201 

England,  forestry  in,  186 

Knglish  Ivy,  substitute  for,  360 

Kngli;ih  Sparrow,  130,  11; 2;  sec  also 
Birds 

F.nglish  Sweetbriar,  349 

I.pidermis,  36 

Kpiphvte,  44 

ERICACFAF;,  He?th  family,  293, 

329.  334.  3W),  3<'9.  37>.  372 
Essential  [xiiiUs  of  tree  life,  27,  28 
Etiolation  of  leaves,  53,  6?,  73 
Europe,  baiting  of  bark-beetles  in, 
148;  gypsy  moth  imijorted  from, 
162;    forestry    in,     186;    exotics 
from,  261,  264,  277,  301,  312,  316, 
3«7.  320,  335.  3i(i'  .Ui-343.  346. 
347.  354.  359.  3('i.  5(ii 
F.uropean  flora  in  California,  22 
Eva|wrdtion,  i8,  21,  58,  60,  79 
Evergreens,  228,  276,  277,  287,  306, 
307.  332-334.  i3(>'  342.  343-  347. 
349.  359.  3<^o;  <''*''  List,  p.  366 
Evomymiis,  Burning  Bush,  etc.,  327, 

359.  360,  3(>t),  371 
Exochorda,  Pearl  ISush,  327,348,369 
Exotics,  22,  24,  63,  65,  205,  244,  298 

Fagus,  Beech,  212,  285,  286,  372 

Fall  web-worm,  160 

False   Indigo,   Amorpha,    326,   346 

366,  368,  369,  372,  373 
F;istigi:ii''  forms,  ;o3,  208,  245,  279, 

313 
Fertilizers,  62,  80,  173 


382 


Index 


Fibrils,  7.  99-  168;  see  also  Root 
system  , 

Fields  of  distribution,  21,  22;  see  also 
Adaptation,  process  of 

Fir,  Abies.  16,  2b.  166,  19,?.  203,  209, 
215,  224.  228,  240,  36(3.  37'-  372; 
see  also  Douglas  Fir;  Gingko 

Fire-blight,  56 

"Fire-pine,"  239 

"Five,  five,  fifty"  formula,  125;  sec 
also  "Two.  two,  fifty" 

Flooding,  dangers  of,  20 

Flowers,  pruning  for.  no;  varying 
shapes,  324,  i^S;  types,  325;  also 
10 

Foliage,  effect  of  ..ght  upon.  18.  ig, 
25;  dependent  on  rwt  system, 
18,  27;  gives  first  indication  of 
disease.  51;  approach  of  winter, 
65;  poisoned  by  sulphurous  acid, 
69;  effects  of  leakage  of  illumina- 
ting gas,  70;  development  by 
prunin:.  7b;  ornamental  trees, 
207;  also  200;  see  also  Crown; 
Defoliation;  Leaves 
Fontainebleau,  primitive  tree  guards 

in.  117  ...  .. 

Food  materials.  14.  17;  assimilation, 

17;  elaboration.    19.    20,    26.   qb; 

increased  by  trimming,  bi ;  growth 

of  callus,  97 
Forest,    Pleasure,    versus    I'leasure 

Park,  188 
Forest  Park.  St.  Louis,  186 
Forest  planting.  170 
Forest  tent-caterpiHar.  15<) 
Forestry  as  an  art.  185.  187 
Form  (in  trimming),  types,  103;  A. 

Des    Cars's   book    on.    105    iwie; 

rules     107;     cored  ed     in    trans- 
planting,   ibq;    atlccted    by         '. 

205;  inheritance  in.  208;  m(        0 

Outlines 
Forsylhia,    Golden    Bell.   327.    342, 

368,  369 
Four  winged  Silver  Bell  Tree,  355 
France,  vineyards  of,  148 
Frankfurt,    tree    guards    in,     118, 

120 
Fraxinus,  Ash,  i(),  68,  69,  85.  102 
122,    154.    ibi,    210.   253,   254, 
2S5,*  256,  .^65.370,  371 
Fringe  1  rce,  Liuonantnus,  211,  -ai 


Fringed  Myrtle,  Lagerslrcemia,  328, 

362,  368.  370 
Frost,  differing  effects,  64-66;  pre 

ventive,  67;  worst  form  of  injury. 

67;  enemy  to  insect  pests,  129; 

also  215 
Frost-heaving,  177 
Frost  splits,  68 
Fruit  and  fruit  trees,  60,  84,  150, 

^°7.  325  ,         ,    ,     J  .    • 

Fungi,  entering  through  dead  twigs, 
30;  cause  of  disease,  32;  result  of 
mechanical  injuries,  32,  36,  42; 
attacks  affected  by  season,  34; 
life  historv,  37;  various  forms,  38, 
40;  spraying  for,  55;  frost  injuries, 
67;  fundamental  principle  in  com- 
bating, 124,  1 25;  "/^o  7.  15..  86, 
89,  96;  see  also  Canker;  Parasites; 
Root  Rot;  Saprophytes 
Fungicides,  see   Bordeaux  mixture; 

Disinfectants 
Tangus  diseases,  197,  201,  206,  215, 
229,  250,  278,  279,  281,  285.  286. 
294.  307 

Calls.  46,  48;  see  also  Insect  pests 
Gardenia,  Cape  Jessamine,  327,  360, 

366,  370 
Garland  Flower,  Daphne.  359 
Gas,  Illuminating,  eficcts  of  leakage, 

ii'  7° 
Gasoline  torch,  144  "df 
Geometridx,  see  Inchworms 
Germany,  forestry  in,  54.  187;  laws 

against  insect  pests,  132 
Ghent  .\zalea.  331 
"Giant  Tree,"  288 
Gingko.  209,  213,  226 
Girdling,  19  "ote 
Gleditschia,  Honey  Locust,  210,  247, 

249.  365     ,. 
Globular  outline,  204 
Goethe,  Johann  Wolfgang,  quoted, 

Gold  Flower,  Hypericum.  361 
Golden    Bell,   Forsylhia.    327,   342, 

368,  369 
Golden  Chain,  Cyiisus,  259,    261 
(loldenrod,  i.S4  ,      , 

Gixiseberry.  Fuschia-tlowered,  363 
"Goumi."  The.  342 
Gra'ling,  improper  forms  of,  80.  81 


Index 


38.? 


Grafted  stock,  205 

lirapevines,  158 

Grass  crops,  155 

Grasshoppers,  150,  151 

Great  Laurel,  Rhododendron,  334 

Grills    around    trees,   83;   sec  also 

Guards 
Ground-beetles,  131 
Groundsel,  Baccliaris,  37,  326,  356, 

371-373  , 

('.roup  planting,  light  intensity  for, 

25;  also  182 
Grouping  of  trees,  important  points 

in,  201 
Growth,  impeded,  31,  32;  rapidity 

of,  201;  alTected  by  soil,  205 
Guards,  Tree,  83,  117,  118,  120,  121 
Gypsum,  78 
Gypsy  moth,  162 

Hackberry,  Ccltis,  211,  279,  365 

Hailstones,  injury  by,  36 

Hairs,  see  Root-hairs 

Halesia,  Snowdrop,  Silver  Bell  Tree, 

111,327.354,  3(^9.  370 
Hardback,  Spima,  328,  350,  370 
Hardiness  of  trees,  igg,  200,  323 
Hardwood  ashes  as  fertilizer,  80         ' 
Hardwood  forest,  190 
Hardwood  trees,  193 
Hartshorn,  314 
Hawk-moths,  157 
Hawthorn    Cratagns,  56,   151,  212, 

283,  284;  Paul's  Double  Scarlet, 

285;  Siberian,  284 
Hazelnut,  Corylus,  327,  358,  366,  371 
Heading  in,  87 
Healing,  see  Callusing 
Heart-root,  199;  src  alsn  Root  system 
Heath  family,   ERKACIAK,   293. 

3-'9.  334-  3f>6,  ,*'^9,  37i-  37^;  see 

also  Ciilluna 
Heather,     North     American,     I.eti- 

coth'e,   333,    366,    367,    369-371; 

see  also  Zeuobia 
Hedges,  suitable  forms  for,  219,  228, 

241,  276,  284,  287,  297,  320,  331, 

343,  344,  348.  349.  356,  3'>i 
Heeling,  170 

Height,  gradations  of,  209 
Height  growth,  classification  accord- 
ing to,  192 

fVibore,  363 


Hemlock,  26,  189,  193,  227;  Alpine, 
Tsiigd,  210,  227,  228,  373;  Bas- 
tard, Psfiidotsiiga,  210,  228 
Hercules  Ckih,  Aralia.  210,  252,  371 
Hibiscus,    Mallow,    327,    360,    367, 

369-372 
Hickory,  Hicorin.  16,  154,  171,  172, 
210,    236,    371;    Bilternut,    257; 
Mockernut,    257;    Nutmeg,    257; 
Pecan,  257;  Shagbark,  257;  Shell- 
bark,  257 
Ilicoriu.  Hickories,  210,  256,  257,  371 
Hobble  Hush,  Viburnum,  340,  341 
Holly,  Ilex,  25,   102,  192,  193,  212, 
366,    368,    370-373;    Deciduous, 
native,  288;  Knglish,  287 
Honey  Locust,  Gleditseliia,  210,  247, 

249,  i(i5 
Honey  Mushroom,  43 
Honeysuckle,  Abelia.  326,  336,  367- 

369;    Lonicera,    325,    328,    336- 

ii'i,  36')-  368-371,  373;  I-'ly,  337 
Honeysuckle  family,  CAPRIFOLLV 

CEAK,  336 
Hop  Hornbeam,  Ostrya,   212,   293, 

365,  3f'7 
Hornbeam,  Carpiiius,  192,  211,  277 
»  Horse  Chestnut,  /Eseulus,  59,  67,  68, 

III,  118,  122,  159.  210,  364,  365, 

369.  370;  Dwarf,  250 
Host-plants,  37,  43,  I97,  iS^^ 
Huckleberry,  325 
Humic  acids,  61 
Humus,  173 

Hydrangea.  327,  352,  353,  368,  369 
Hydrocyanic  gas,  134 
Hypericum.   St.   John's  Wort,   327, 

36 1,  3''*^- 3 7-! 

Ice-pressure,  damage  from,  31 

Ichneumons,  130 

Inchworms,  plague  of,  subdued  by 

English  Sparrow,  130 
Ilex,  Holly,  212,  287,  288,  366,  368, 

370-373 
Indian  Cherry.  Rhamiius,  313 
Indian    Currant.    Symphoricarpus, 

339,  366.  36H-370,  37^ 
Infections,     see     Fungus     diseases; 

Insect  pests 
Ingrafting,  1 16 
Inlieritance  in  form,  208 
l;'.sect  horiti.  i  jO 


i.T- 


384 


Index 


Insect  injury,  18,  26,  36,  49,  S2;s''« 
also  Insect  pests 

Insect  lime,  see  Dendrolene 

Insect  pests,  periodic  development, 
45;  various  groups,  46;  character 
of  damage  inflicted,  46;  precau- 
tions against,  54;  combating  ui 
cities,  U.  131-133;  natural  ene- 
mies, ijg;  methods,  133;  mechani- 
cal destruction  of,  144;  in  parks, 
195;  also  197,  206,  215 

Insecticides,  125.  134.  146;  see  J"^" 
Bordeaux  mixture;  Soap  solution; 
Tobacco 

Insects,  biting,    134.   I3S;    sucking, 
134,     142;     obnoxious     to     tree 
growth,  149 
Iron,  deficiency  in  soil,  62 
Ironvvood,  Oslryu,  192.  212,  293,  365, 

3f>7 
Ilea.  352 
Ithaca,  N.  Y.,  trees  killed  m,   142 

note 

Japanese  Quince,  Pirns,  207;  see  also 
Strawberry-bush 

Japanese  Storax,  355 

Japonica,  Pirns.  297;  see  also  Straw- 
berry-bush 

Jasmine.  Philaticlphiis,  354 

Judas  Tree,  Cercis,   in,  211,   280, 

3(>7 
Juglans,    Walnut,    210,    257,    2^9, 

260 
June  bug,  15.S 
Juneberry,    Aimlamhier,    iii,    211, 

273.  3(^9-  370.  372 
Juniper  apple,  3^;  -''■'''■  <''''"  •^"^'^^ 
Jiiiiipcnis,  Pencil  Cedar,  209,  215, 

219,  220,  371-373 

Kainil,  see  I'otash  fertilizers 
Kalniiti.  l.aurcl,  293,  33'-  M~'  3f>5. 

366,  369.  370-  372 
Kentucky  Coffee  Tree,  256 
Kerosene    emulsion.    50,    134.    U'- 

142,  150,  151.  155  15^'-  i^'O 
Kiiinikinnik.  Coriius.  282 
Kirkland.  A.  H..  qiwtrd.  141 
Knapsack  pumjis,  13S  note,  147 
Kn.'^ls,  their  causes.  14 
A' (Wr(»/(rw,  Varnish  Tree,  210,  258,* 
201,  370 


Laburnum,  Cytisiis,  210,  259,    261, 

368,  370 
Lady-bugs,  coccinellida:,  131 
Lady  Laurel,  Daphne,  358 
Lagerstraemia,  Crape  Myrtle,  Fringed 

Myrtle,  32S,  362,  368,  370 
Larch,     170,     i77.    i95.    209,    215; 
American,      Larix,       230,      371; 
Golden,  Pseiidolarix,  210,  213,  229, 
230*;  Japanese,  Larix,  230;  West- 
ern, Larix,  230 
Larch-moth,  166 
Larix,  Larches,  209,  213,  229,  230, 

371-373;  see  also  Pseiidolarix 
Lars-x,  see  Insect  pests 
Laurel,  Kalmia,  277,  332,  366,  369. 
370,  372;  Mountain,  332;  Sheep, 
332,  369;  Swamp,  332 
Lawn  trees,  treatment  of  soil  lor,  77, 
conditions  for  planting,  173-  176; 
size,  178;  contrasted  with  forest 
trees,  189;  also  198 
Lead    plant,    Amorpha,    326,    340, 

366 
Leaf-beetles,  152,  155 
Leaf-eaters,  46,  54,  55 
Leaf-miners,  47,  165,  167,  229,  272, 

284 
Leaf-rollers,  47.  165,  166 
Leaf-suckers,  47 
Leatherleaf,    Cassandra,    327,    332, 

3O6.  369,  371 
Leaves,   development,    7,    10;   part 
in  eva|X)ration  and  assimilation, 
17-19;  breathing  pores,  20;  etiola- 
tion, 53,  58.  (^o.  <'2.  73;  Pt-riiMl  of, 
204;  color  and  form,  208;  see  also 
I'oliage 
LKCUMIXOSAK,  Pea  family,  345 
Lepidoptera,     sec     Butterflies     and 

moths 
Lespedeza.  see  Daw  odium 
Leueothm'.  North  American  Heathers 
1,7,^,  360,  367,  3<J9-37i;  see  also 
Zenohia 
Lihoeedriis,  Arborvita-,  Incense  Ce- 
dar, 20g,  215,  221 
Lichens,  excessive  development  on 

bark,  44;  relation  to  disease,  53 
Life  of  tree,  definition  of  term,  30; 
comparison  with  animal  life,  30, 
31;  utuses  contribiilinj;  to  length 

of,  31 


Index 


38s 


Light,  necessity  of,  18,  21,  Jegrees 
of  inunsity,  25,  26;  uneven  dis- 
tribution, 73;  as  means  of  com- 
bating insect  pests,  144;  require- 
ments in  grouping,  201 

Light-needing  forms,  iq2,  215,  231, 
23s.  275-  300,  306,  314 

Light  requirements,  scale  of,  25,  26 

Ligustrum,  Privet,  192,  328,  343. 
366,  369-372 

Lilac,  Syringa,  329,  344.  308,  37i; 
Japan  Tree,  345;  Persian,  345; 
Rouen  34S.  37© 

Lime,  in  soil,  62,  78;  as  medicme, 
123;  as  insecticide,  125,  163 

Lime  Tree,  Tilia,  213,  318 

Lime  wash,  146-148,  154,  158 

Linden,  Tilia,  16,  65,  205,  213,  318; 
Silver,  320,  366 

Liquidambar,  Red  Gum,  Sweet  Cium, 
Bilsted,  212,  288,  365 

Liriodotdron,  Tulip  Tree,  White- 
wood,  Yellow    Poplar,   212,   288, 

36s-  370         „  , .   .     , 
Locust,  Black,  RoUma,  65,  m,  iS4. 

163,    193.    211,    248,    263,    36s; 

Clammy,      Robinia,    211,      248; 

Honey,  Gleditschia,  249,  365 
Locust-borer,  154 

London,  tree  guards  in,  83,  118,  121 
Longevity,  201 
Lonicera,   Honeysuckle,    328,    330- 

338,  366,  368-371,  373      , 
Lost   parts,'  ability  to  replace,  see 

Recuperative  power 
Lowell,  James  Russell,  quoted,  86 
Lupine,  as  fertilizer,  80 

McClovcrn  nozzle,  139 
Magnesium,  deficiency  in  soil,  62 
Magnolia,  in,  17'     "12,    288-290, 

366-369 
Maidenhair  Tree,  226 
Malachodeitdroii,  see  Stiiartia 
Mallow,    Hibiscus,    327,    360,    367, 

369-372 
Mantis,  scr  Walking-stick 
Manure,  ste  Fertilizers 
Maple,  Acer,  16,  69,  91,  102,  158- 
160,  162,  165,  171.  20s,  211,  364- 
367,  37'-   ^sh-leaved,  266;  Black, 
i64;    Kag!:- ''aw,    271:     Knglish, 
2O9;  Japanese,   270,*   271,*   272; 


Maple,  Acer  —  continued 

Mediterranean,  268,*  269;  Moun- 
tain, 26s;  Norway,  266,*  268, 
271;  Pacific  coast,  267;  Red,  66, 
26s;  Rock,  60;  Silver,  59,  84,  103. 
IIS,  265,  365;  Soft,  8s,  193; 
Striped,  265;  Sugar,  2S,  I93>  264; 
Sycamore  267,*  268,  271;  Tar- 
tarian, 269,*  270;  Oregon  Maple. 
see  Maple,  Pacific  coast. 
Maple-worm,  see  Forest  tent-cater- 
pillar 
Mari,  78 

Massachusetts,   gas    companies   of, 
70;  efforts  to  exterminate  gypsy 
moth  in.  162 
Meadow-sweet,  350 
Mealy  bugs,  is© 
Measuring- worm,  see  Inchworms 
Mechanical    destruction    of    insect 

pests  in  woodland  parks,  19s 
Mechanical  injuries,  in  city  streets, 
32,  33.  n7;  cause  of  disease,  34, 
36;  results  of,  74;  0/50  59 
Mechanism  of  tree  compared  with 

system  of  water  works,  18 
Medlar,  294 
Melia,  Chinaberry,  Umbrella  Tree, 

210,  260,*  261 
Mengel,  William,  Son,  N.  Y.,  14S 

note 
Metal  protector  for  trapping  insects, 

Mildews,    38,    363;    see    also    Spot 

diseases 
Minerals,  requisite  for  tree  life,  17, 

18,  21,  28;  results  of  deficiency  of, 

19,  79;  also  62 
Mist  Tree,  262 
Mistletoe,  43 

Mites,  134  ,   , 

Mock    Orange,    Pliiladclphus,    192, 

328,344,354.370,372,373 
Mockernut,  llicoria,  257 
Mohrodendron,  see  Halesia 
Monopodial  t>'pe,  203 
Moosewood,  26s 
Morus,  Mulberry,  212,  291 
Mosses,  excessive  development  on 

bark,  44;  relation  to  disease,  S3 
Moth,  Household,  166 
Mountain  Ash,  Sorbns,  56,  150,  192, 
211,  2O3,  264,305,369,  372 


386 


Index 


Mountain  Fetter-l)usli,  PItris.  .^jS, 


Mountain  Rose  Bay,  RhodnJiiidrou, 

Mourning  Cloak,  i(M 

Miilhcrry,  Morns,  211.  2gi 

Mulching',  67.  77,  So.  175,  177.  .^,U 

Mullein,  ,^25 

Murrill,   A.  W.,  on  "Shade   Trees. 

117  note 
Muriate  of  i)<)tasli,  140 
Mycelium,  4i-4,i.  5''.  "-■   '-4;  '''■'' 

also  Fungi 
Myrica,    Wax    Myrile,    32S,    36:. 

Nannvherry,  Vihurmim.  340.  366 
Xasoii.  Prof.  Y.  L.,  r<;/Vrr(</  /o.   14.1 

note 
National  parks.  186 
Needle-shaped  lea\es,  see  Coniferous 

trees 
Xeillia,  see  Spiraa 
Nettle  Tree,  Celtis,  211,  279,  365 
New  York  State,  winter  of  1903-04, 

66;  Forest  Preserve  of.  186 
Nitrogen,  deficiency  in  soil.  62,  79 
Nomenclature.  207.  -08 
North  American  species,  number  of, 

202 
Nozzles,  139,  147 
Nursery  stock,  I'-v  209 
Nuthatches.  130 
Syssa,  Tupelo,  212,  291,  371 

Oak,  Qucrcus,  16.  59,  65,  85,  112, 

154.  is^j-  102-164,  171,  192.  193, 

213,  228,  306,  371,  372;  Basket, 
308;  BlacK,  307-309.  3<>5".  Bur- or 
Mossy-cup.  308;  California.  310. 
366;  Chestnut,  308;  Chincapin, 
311,  Wj;  Cow,  308;  Knglish,3io,* 
312, "366;  Italian,  312,*  313;  Live. 
^07;  Over-cup,  308;  Pin,  309,  371; 
Post,  •  S;  Quercitron.  Red,  308, 
3'H.  365;  Rock,  308;  Scarlet,  309, 
364;  Scrub,  Bear,3ii.  366;  Shingle, 
309,  365;  Spanish,  Willow,  309, 
371;  Swamp.  61,  308;  Turkey, 
311,*  313;  Water.  309;  White, 
307.  371;  YcUo-.v  Chtiinut,  308 

Oak-cariienter,  1O3 

Oak-pruner,  154 


Old  age  in  trees,  121 

Oka.  see  Osmantlms 

OI.KACKAK,  Olive  family,  341.  3^5 

Olive  family,  OLKACKAK,  341 

Opidaster.  see  Spinea 

Orange  trees,  151 

Oregon  Pine,  228 

Ornamental  planting,  198 

"Ornamental    Shrubs."    by    I..    O. 

Davis,  quoted.  i2(t.  ix\ 
Ornamental  trees,  values,  200.  202; 
in  Washington.  206;  foliage.  207; 
classification.  207;  see  also  l.awn 
trees;  Shade  trees;  Street  trees; 
and  Lists,  pi).  365-373 
Orthoptera.  150 

Osage  Orange,  To.vylon,  213.  320 
Osmanthus.  212,  291,  36O,  370 
Osmosis,  18  note 
Oslrya.  Hop  Hornbeam,  Iron  wood, 

212,  293.  365.  367 
Outlines  of  trees,  204 
Oxydendron,  Sorrel  Tree,  212,  293 
O.xygen,  see  Air 

Pago<la  Tree,  Sopliora,  263 
Palm  trees.  8 

Paradise  .\pi)le.  rims,  295 
Paradise  Plant,  Daphne,  358 
Parasites,  causes  of  disease,  32,  37, 
44;  see  also  Fungi;  Insect  pests; 
Nlistletoe 

Paris,  tree  guards  in,  83,  118,  119, 
121 

Paris  Green,  127,  135,  137,  i47.  ^48, 
153,  155,  164 

Park.  Woodland,  versus  pleasure 
park  188;  location,  outline, 
composition.  190;  classification  of 
species  in.  192;  permanency,  193; 
selection  of  materials,  194,  198; 
dealing  with  insect  pests,  195 

Park  planting,  degrees  of  light  in- 
tensity needed,  25 

Parks,  see  Adirondack  Forest  Pre- 
serve; Bronx  Park.  N.  ^■  City; 
I'orest  Park,  St.  Louis;  Soldiers' 
Home,  Washington 

Parry,  nurseryman,  243 

Paulo-iinia.  212,  293 

Pnnl's  Double  Scarlet  Hawthorn,  285 

Pea,  tvpe-shape,  325 

Pea  family,  LEGUMINOSAE,  345 


Index 


387 


Peach.  Primus,  in,  212,  302,  30., 

I'each-borer    -58 

Pear,  effect   .  :  sun-scald,  68;  lime 

for  pruning,  in 
Pearl  Bush,  Exochorda,  327.  348,  369 
I'ecan,  Hkoria,  256 
Pendulous  (form),  208 
I'epperidge,  Syssa,  212,  291,  371 
Perennial  herbs,  373 
Persimmon,  Diospyrus,  172,  212,  285 
Fhilatlclphiis,    Mock    Orange,    192, 

328,344,354.370.372.373 
Phosphoric  acid  in  soil,  6.' 
Phylloxera,  148 
Physiological  disease,  5O 
Fhysocarpns,  sec  Spiriea 
Pit  fa,  Spruces,  209,  215,  228,  240, 

242,  243,*  244,*  366,  371,  373 
Phris,  328,  333,  i?4<  36f'.  368-371; 

see  also  Andromeda;  Xolisma 
Pine,  Pinus,  25,  156,  165,  171,  189, 
193,    iQS.    203.    210.    214,    231; 
Bhutan,    234;   Black,    237,*    238, 
240,    259;    371,    372;    Bull,    240; 
Calabrian,     238,*     239;    Cluster, 
240;  Corean,  232,*  234;  Dwarf, 
240;  Greek,  233,*  234;  Jack,  239, 
371,  372;  Longleaf,  239;  Mexican 
White,  234,  235;  Northern  Pitch, 
239;  Red,  239;  Scotch,  236,*  259, 
372;  Shortleaf,  240;  Silver,   234; 
Spruce,    240;   Sugar,   234;    Swiss 
Stone,  234;  Table  Mountain,  239; 
White,  37,  60,  66,  231,  233;  Yel- 
low, 234;  Australian,  Corsican,  - 
Pine,  Black;  Gray,  see  I'ine,  J 
Norway,  see  Pine,  Red 
Pine-apple,  48;  see  also  Galls 
Pine-bud  worm,  166 
Pine-twister.  166 
Pinetum,  214 

Pinus,  Pines,  210,   214,   231,   232,* 
233.*  234.  23s.*  23(1.*  237,  238>* 
239,  240,'  259,  371,  372 
Pinxter,  331  .      ^  , 

Pirns,  Apple,  212,  294,*  295,"  296, 

297,*  298,*  366-369 
Pith  rays,  14,  17 
Plane-tree,  Platanus,  68,  212,   298, 

300 
Plant-lice,  134,  141,  148,  15° 
Planting  too  deep,  consequence  of, 

S8 


PlalaiiHs,  Sycamore,  Plane-tree,  212, 

298,  299,  364.  370.  371 
Plum,  Primus,  151,  158,  212,  302; 
Beach,  305;  Japanese,  304,*  366, 
368;  Yellow,  30s;  Chickasaw,  see 
Plum,  Yellow 
Podocarpiis,  Yew,  210,  247 
Poisons,   for  combating   fungi   and 
insect  pests,  123.  133;  injurious  to 
plants  as  well  as  to  animals,  134; 
for    biting-insects,    135;   see  also 
Arsenate  of  lead;   Bran;  Insecti- 
cides; Paris  Green;  Soap  solution 
Poisonous  trees,  261 
Polypodial  type,  204 
Pope's  Hat,  Evonymous,  359 
Poplar,  Popiiliis,  16,  25,  58,  65,  69, 
103,  150,  151,  154-156,  158,  I'". 
163,  165,  171,  212,  300,  365,  300, 
370-372;     Balsam,     301;     Lom- 
bardy,  301;  Silver-leaf,  301 
Poplar,  Yellow,  Liriodendron,   212, 

288,  370 
Poppelsdorf  Allee,  Bonn,  tree  guards 

in,  118 
Popiiliis,  Poplars,  212, 30x5, 301,  365, 

366,  370-372  .,   _, 

Potash,  deficiency  m  soil,  62 

Potash  fertilizers,  149 

Potato-beetle,  156 

Praying-mantis,  151 

Pride  of  Rochester,  Deutzia,  353 

Privet,  Ligusirum,  192, 328, 343,  366, 
369-372 

Privet  Andromeda,  Xolisma,  335 

Protective  coloration,  131 

Pruning,  nat-..;.!,  13,  83;  in  rela- 
tion to  lig.  intensity,  25,  26; 
to  replace  lost  parts,  27;  for  frost- 
killing,  65,  67;  in  late  summer,  66; 
to  establish  equilibrium  between 
root  and  crown,  82,  ici;  to  pre- 
vent location  of  fungus  spores,  86, 
124;  outfit  and  method,  87,  88; 
distinguished  from  trimming  and 
heading  in,  87;  dressing  of  wounds, 
'  89;  healing  process,  91 ;  depending 
on  food  elaboration.  98;  most  difli- 
cult  task,  102;  varieties  of  form, 
103;  A.  Des  Cars's  book  on,  105 
note;  rules  for  form,  107;  tools, 
108;  for  (lowers  or  fruit,  no: 
effect  of  severe,  in;  repairing  of 


388 


Index 


Pruning  —  continited 

neglected  wounds,  iii;  time  for, 
hi;  for  scales,  151,  15,?,  iSS; 
while  transplantint;,  lOg.  171;  for 
form  out  of  place  in  forest,  iSg; 
shrubs,  ,525 

Primus,  Cherries,   Peaches,  Plums, 
212,  302-306,  366,  368,  369,  371. 

372 
Psfudolarix,  Golden  Larch,  210,  213, 

2  2q,  230*;  see  also  Larix 
Pseitdotsiiga,  3aptard  Hemlock,  210, 

228;  sec  also  Douglas  Fir;  Tsiiga 
Pulse  family.  Acacia,  210,  247,  249; 

Albizzia.  247,  249;  Gleditschia,  210, 

247,  249,  36s;  Robinia,  211,  247, 

248,  365 

Purple  Fringe,  Rhus,  202 
Pyrus,  time  for  pruning,   in 
Prussiate  of  potash,  126 
Pumps,  see  Spraying  machinery 
Pyrenees,  240 

Quercus,   Oak.    213,    228,   306-309, 
310,*   3",*   3'2,*   313,   364-366, 

371,  372 
Quick  lime,  see  Lime 

Quince,  294 

Quince,  Japanese,  Pirus,  297 

Racemes,  324 
Ragweed,  37 
Raupenleim,  145 
Rear-horse,  sec  Walking-stick 
Recuperative  power,  26-28,  32,  36, 

171.  172,  201,  306 
Red  Bud,  Cercis,  in,  211,  280,  367 
Red  Gum,  Liquidambar,   212,   288, 

365 
Red  Osier,  283 

Redwood,  Sequoia,  210,  215,  222 
Resin,  covering  a  wound.  91,  92.  '66 
Respiration,     importance     of,     20; 

affected  by  season,  34 
Relinspora,  see  Chanmcyparis 
Reversion  to  type,  208 
Rhamnus,  Buckthorn,  213,  3ii,  314. 

368,  369,  371 
Rhododendron,    60,    175,    192,    228, 

2,7,  293,  328.  331.  334-336,  365. 

368,  3701  37- 
Rhodora,  330 
Rhodotypus,  328,  348 


Rhus,  Sumach,  211,  261,  262,  368, 
370-372 

Ribes,  Flowering  Currants,  328,  362, 
363.  3^*^.369.  371.372 

Road  system  of  the  forester,  187 

Rock  gardens,  shrubs  for,  373 

Root-hairs,  17,  168,  172 

Root-lice,  151 

Root  pests,  see  Cutworms;  Wire- 
worms;  Clicking-beetles;  Phyl- 
loxera 

Root  rot,  43,  56,  128 

Root  stock,  how  to  kill,  50 

Root  system,  development,  15; 
types  and  characteristics,  16; 
r<x)t-hairs,  17;  relation  to  foliage, 
18,  19,  27;  respiration,  20;  adap- 
tation to  change.  20;  requisites 
for  life,  21;  annual  rejuvenation  of 
rootlets,  29;  conditions  in  city 
streets,  33;  insect  injury  to,  49; 
conditions  causing  disease,  52; 
loss  by  winter-killing,  66;  effects 
of  gas  leakage,  70;  injury  by  gra- 
ding, 80;  equilibrium  between  root 
and  crown  necessary.  82;  pruning 
crown  to  balance  with,  99;  injury 
in  transplanting,  168,  169;  advan- 
tage of  nursery  stock,  170;  shrubs, 

Rosa,  Rose,  325,  328,  348,  349,  367, 

368,  370-372 
Rose,  Rosa,  325,  328,  348,  367,  368, 

370-372;  Memorial,  349;  Native 

Wild,  349;  Prairie,  349 
Rose  family,  ROSACEAE,  347;  sec 

also  Spircea 
Rose  of  Sharon,  Hibiscus,  361 
Rosemary,  Wild,  Andromeda.  330 
Rot,  31,   37,   51,   86,    112;    >  (•  also 

Root  rot 
Rot  fungi,  40,  55 
Rowan  Tree,  Sorbus,  263 
Rowan  Tree,  Virburnum,  341 
Russian  Olive,  Elceagnus,  342 
Rusts,  37 

St.    John's    Wort,  Hypericum,    327 

361,368-372 
St.   Louis,  smoke  nuisance  in,   70; 

Forest  P.irk,  i,H6 
Salix,  Willows,  213,  314-316,  36s 

371 


Index 


389 


Sambdcus,  Elderberry,  328,  336,  338, 

339.  31-6,  3O8-371 
San  Jose  fe':alc,  151 
Sandy  soil,  trees  suitable  for,  ,<7- 
Sap-lifters,  108 
Sap-wood  trees,  171 
Saprophytes,  36,  41,  43 
Saratoga,  cost  of  sprayinR  in.  141 
Sargent,  Prof.  C.  S.,  definition  of 

tree  adopted  by.  2cx) 
Sascatoon  Berry.  Minis,  273 
Sassafras,  21  J.  316,  3()7.  37.2 
Saunders,  Dr.  William,  on  tests  of 

hardiness  in  trees,  200 
Saw-flies,  48,    230;  iff  «/«'   Insect 
pests  ,       , 

S.\XII'RAG.\Ci:.\E,       Stonebreak 

family,  35^  , 

Scale-insects.  134,  141.  15°;  see  also 

Insect  pests 
Scheele's  Green.  137 
Scotch  Broom.  Cylisiis,  346 
Scotch  Heather,  Call  una,  mi 
Seashore  planting,  trees  sui  -ible  for, 

242,    249,     284,    317.    3    '•    341. 

343.  349,  35<J.  3f'^-  371;  "-"  List, 

P-37I  .  ,. 

Seasons,   influence   ol,    on    disease. 

Seed,  preserving  characteristics  of 
mother  plant.  24;  inheritance  of 
adaptability.  34 

Senecio,  37 

Sequoia,  210,  215,  222 

Service-berry,  50 

Service-tree,  Sorhiis,  192,  263,  2O4 

Sesias,  158 

Seventeen-year  locust,  see  Cicada 

Shadbush,    Amelamhier,    iii,    211, 

273-  369,  370.  372 

Shade.  elTcct  on  weak  trees.  25; 
value  of,  200;  affected  by  soil 
205.  see  also  Light 

Shade-enduring  trees.  215.  21S,  232. 
234.  264.  267,  270-278,  281.  284, 
287,  288,  ^2^,  no,  332.  337.  354, 
559.  3(ji;  i//.v()  List,  p.  370 

Shade  trees,  adverse  conditions  in 
streets.  33;  treatment  of  soil  for, 
77;  reasons  for  pruning,  98;  height 
of  crown  from  ground,  101 

Shagbark,  Ilicoria,  257 

Shapes  of  trees,  see  Types  of  trees 


Sheepberry,  Viburnum,  340-  3^6 
Shellbark,  Ilicoria,  256,  257 
Shepherdla,  Buffato  Berry,  328,344, 

366,  308,  3O9,  372 
Shoulder,  38 

Shrubs,  adaptability,  322;  hardiness, 

323,    325;    freedom    from    pests, 

323;  grouping,  324;  pruning,  325; 

classification,  326 

Shrubs  and  trees,  confusion  betwec.i, 

208,  322 
Siberian  Crab-apple,  293 
Siberian   Pea  Tree,  Caragana,  210, 

252,  368,  370,372 
Silkworm,  158,  291 
Silver  Bell  Trte,  Ilalesia,  111,327, 

354,  .369,  370 
Silver  Tree,  Elieagitus,  327,  341,  342- 

366,  309 

Slacked  lime,  see  Lime 

Smith,  Prof.  J.  B..  referred  to,  149 

Smoke,  cause  of  disease,  (iS;  symp- 
toms of  pijison  by,  O9;  suppression 
of  nuisance,  70  i     t  • 

Smoke-resistant  trees,  69;  also  List, 

P-  ^'° 
Smoke  Tree,  Rhus,  262 

Snout-beetles,  152 

Snow-pressure  damage  from,  31 

Snowball.  Viburnum.  192,  324,  329, 

33(1,  339-341,  3OO-373;  Chinese, 

340 
Snowdrop,  Ilalesia,   m,  327,   354. 

369,  370 

Soap,  Soft,  163 

Soap  solution,   141,   142,   148.   130, 
133,  154,  160;  see  also  Insecticides 

Soil,   relation   to   root   system,    13. 
16;  respiration,  20;  adaptation  to 
species,  24,  198;  imi)ortant  factor 
in    city    streets,    iy,    symptoms 
of    unfavorable    conditions,     53; 
changes    in,    57,    58;    physically 
wet,     physiologically     dry,     (>i; 
chemical     constituents,    O2,     79; 
treatment  of  for  shade  and  lawn 
trees,    77;  composition  of   versus 
physical    conditions,     198,     199; 
needed  depth,  199;  for  transplant- 
ing, 172;  influence  on  form,  204, 
205;    conditions    for    coniferous 
trees,  214 
Soldiers'  Home,  Washington,  186 


390 


Index 


5; 


»i 


41 

:     Mul   . 

Sophora,  211,  263 

Sorbus,   Mountain   Ash,    211,    263, 

264,  36s,  369,  372 
Sorrel  Tree,  Oxydendron,  212,  293 
Sour  Gum,  Nyssa,  212,  291,  371 
Spacing  of  trees,  180.  321 
Span-wornjs,  see  Inchworms 
Species,  number  of,  202,  20O;  descrip- 
tion of  those  in  Washington,  com- 
piled by  B.  K.  I'emow,  206 
Specimen   trees,    planting   of,    183, 

iq8.  208,  216,  218,  355 
Sphinxes,  157 
Spiders,  131 

Spikes  (flower  shapes),  325 
Spindletree,  Evoiiymoiis,  192,  359 
Spiny  Kim  caterpillar,  1O3 
Spinners  (moths).  158 
Spircea,    tji,    325,   328,    350,    351, 

366-371 

Spot  diseases,  37 

Spraying,  55,  127,  135,  140,  141  . 

Spraying  machinery,  138;  discussion 
of  in  Yearbook  of  U.  S.'  Dept.  of 
Agriculture,  140;  dealers  in,  140 
note 

Springfield,  Mass.,  cost  of  spraying 
in,  141 

Spruce,  Picea,  16,  25,  166,  178.  ?89, 
193.  203,  209,  215,  228.  373; 
Blue,  242,  366;  Caucasian.  243.* 
244;  Japanese,  244,*  Norway, 
178,  240,  242;  Red,  242;  White, 

2.',2,  371 
Sp'uce-bud  tortri.x,  166 
S(ruce-bud  worm.  166 
S'  ruce  forests  in  Kurope,  148 
S   urge  Laurel,  Daphne,  359 
Squash-bug,  150 
Stagger  Bush,  Pieris,  328,  338 
Staghead,  53,  61,  62.  72 
Steeplebush,  Spiraa.  32S.  350.  370 
Stomach  of  the  plant,  18 
Stonebreak     family,    Saxijragacem, 

Stool  shoots,  193 
Slorax  family,  354 
Strawberry-bush,  Calycanthus,  327, 

357-  368,  370 
Strawberry-bush,    Pirns,    212,    207, 

299* 
Strawberry  Tree,    Evonymiis,    359, 

368 


Street  trees,  degrees  of  light  intensity 
needed,  25;  aeration,  82;  height  of 
crown  from  ground,  loi;  pruning 
while  young,  109;  spacing,  116, 
180,  mechanical  injuries,  117; 
guards  for,  117;  conditioni  for 
planting,  173,  176,  364;  size,  178, 
364;  adverse  conditions,  199;  con- 
siderations in  choice,  201;  inap- 
propriate species,  203;  also  198, 
214,  22b,  and  List,  pp.  364-365 

Stiii^rlia,  328,  363,  370 

Slyrax,  328,  355 

Suckers,  see  Water-sprouts 

Suffocation,  see  Respiration 

Sugar  Plum,  see  Juneberry 

Sulphur,  363 

Sulphur,  Flowers  of,  formula,  146 
note 

Sumach,  Rhus,  2 it,  261,  368,  370- 
372;  Dwarf,  262;  Osbeck  262; 
Smooth,  262;  Staghorn,  262; 
Venetian,  262 

Sun-scald,  36,  56, 59, 68, 1 75,  250,  286 

Sunflower.  325 

Surgery,  27,  32 

Swamp  Honeysuckle,  Azalea,  331 

Swamps,  and  root  respiration,  20 

Swampy  soil,  trees  suitable  for,  371 

Sweet  Fern,  Myrica,  328,  362 

Sweet  Gum,  Liqiiidamhar ,  212,  2S8, 

365 
Sweet  Gale,  Myrica,  328,  362 
Sweet  Pepperbush,  Clethra,  327,  332, 

36f>,  370,  372 
Sweetbriar,  Knglish.  349 
Sweetleaf.  Symplocos,  329,  355, -368 
Swift's  arsenate  of  lead,  135  note 
Sycamore,  Plalanits,  65.  69.  84,  103, 

212,  298,  299,  364.  370.  371 
Symphorkarptis,  Waxberry,  Indian 

Currant,   Coral    Bjrry,  329,  339, 

366,  368-370,  372 
Symplocos,    Buch-Ham,    Sweetleaf, 

329,  355-  368 
Syringa,  Lilac,  325,  329,  344,  345, 

354,  368,  370,  371 

Tachina  flies,  130 

Tamarack.  166.  230 

Tamarisk,  Tamarix,  213,  316,  325, 

371,  372;  French,  318  *;  German, 

317  *;  Indian,  319* 


Index 


391 


Tamarix,  213,  316.  3i7-*  3i8.*  3«9.* 

325.  371.  372 
Tap-root,   171.  178.   I99.  "4.  "a- 

306;  see  also  Root  system 
Tarred  Paper,  Band  of,  for  trapping 

insects,  145 
Taste,  standards  of,  202 
Taxodium,  Bald  Cypress,  210,  213, 

215.  221,  371 
Tdxiis,  Yews,  192,   210,  245,   370. 

372 
Temperature,  and  evajwralion,  21 
TeneriiTe,  Island  of,  Dragon  Trees 

on,  121 
Tennyson,  Alfred,  I^rd,  qiioled,  275 
Thistle  family,  356 
Thorn  Tree,  Cralcegiis,  111,212,  283^ 

366-370,    372;    ^oekspu'"'    2^^' 
284;  Scarlet,  284;  White,  192,  284 

Thrushes,  130 

Thuja,  Arborvitffi  or  White  Cedar, 

210,215,219,371.373     ^ 
Thuyopsis,  Tom  Thumb  or  Japanese 

Arborvita;,  210,  215,  219,*  371 
Tick  Trefoil,  Desmodium,  327,  347. 

367.  370 

Tiger-beetles,  131 

Tilia,  Linden,  Lime  Tree  or  Bass- 
wood,  213,  318,  319,  364,  366,  367. 

371         ,     ,     . 
Tinea,  sec  Leaf-miners 

Tissues,  dead,  6;  living,  7.  »7.  iQ'. 
mechanical  injuries  to,  36;  healing 
process  of  injured,  92;  leaf-miners 
inside  of,  167 

Titi,  Lcucothde,  m 

Toadstool,  42 

Tobacco,  as  an  insecticide,  142,  149, 

Tom  Thumb  or  Japanese  Arbor- 
vitae,  Thuyopsis,   210,  215,  219, 

Top  dressing,  formula,  80;  see  also 

Fertilizers 
Torreya,   California  Nutmeg  Tree, 

210,  247 
Tortrix,  see  Leaf-rollers 
Toxylon,  Osage  Orange,  213,  320 
Tracing-root,     16;    see    also    Root 

system 
Transpiration,  see  Evaporation 
TrauspUmtcd    trcus,    difference    in 

derivation,  34;  value  of,  170 


Transplanting,  replacing  of  lost 
roots  by,  27;  adaptation  to  new 
conditions,  61,  63;  favorable  con- 
ditions for,  172;  proper  depth,  173; 
time,  176;  size,  177;  spacing,  180 
Trapping,  as  means  of  combating 

insect  pests,  144 
Tree-hoppers,  150 
Tree-life,    essential    points   of,    27, 

28 
Tree    of    Heaven,    Ailanlhiis,    210, 

251.*  256,  262 
Tree-planting,  obj'   .s  of,  198 
Tree-tanglefoot,  145 
Trees  and  shrubs,  confusion  between, 

208 
Trimming,  distinguished  from  prun- 

■vA,&7 
Trunk,  see  Bole 
Tsuga,  Hemlock,  210,  227,  228,  373; 

see  also  Psettdolsuga 
Tuhp  Tree,  Liriodeiidron,  102,  193, 

203,  212,  288,  365,  370 
Tupelo,  Nyssa,  212,  291,  371 
Tussock  moth,  159 
Twigs,  breathing  pores  in,  20;  dying 

of,   in   old    trees,   30;   trees   and 

shrubs  with  colored,  367 
"Two,    two,    fifty,"    formula,    127; 

see  also  "Five,  five,  fifty" 
Two  Winged  Silver  Bell  Tree,  355 
Types  of  flower  shapes  325;  of  trees, 

203,  204 

Ulmiis,  Elms,  213,  32<>-322,  364,  365 

Umbel,  325 

Umbrella  Tree,  Melia,    210,    260, 

261 
U.  S.  Div.  of  Forestry,  Bulletin  no. 

17,  referred  to,  208 

Varnish  Tree,  Koelreuteria,  210,  258,* 

261,  370 
Verbena  family,  363 
Vermorel  nozzle,  139,  i47 
Viburnum,  Snowballs,  192,  324,  329, 

339.340,  341,  366,  373 
Vireos,  130 
Virgilia,  sec  Cladrastis 
Virginia  Willow.  Ilea,  352 
Vikx,  Chaste  Tree,  329,  363,  370 
Vreel;>.nd   Chemical   Company,    13S 

note 


392 


Index 


i 


Wahoo,  Evonymout,  350,  3''7 

Wahoo,  Ulmus,  321 

Walking-stick,  MantidiP,  131,  151 

Walnut,  JuRlans.  16,  102,  154,  171, 
210,  250.  261;  Black,  257;  Knglish, 
260;  White,  257 

Warblers,  130 

Water,  taken  up  by  rw)tlets,  17.  iq, 
21,  28;  even  supply  favorable, 
24;  use  of  in  transplantinR,  174 

Water-sprouts,  53,  50,  100 

Water-supply,  deficiency  cause  of 
death,  30,  31;  reduced  by  pave- 
ments, 3y,  and  wintcr-killinR,  Mr, 
surplus  at  root,  58,  59;  various 
demands  ujMin,  60;  necessary  to 
growth,  -7,  78;  regulation  by 
drainage.  79;  excluded  by  grading, 
80;  in  old  age,  121,  123;  also 
S3,  57,  62,  64,  i6q,  198,  199,  201, 
206 

Water-works,  mechanism  of  tree 
compared  with  system  of,  18 

Wattle,  Acacia;  Black,  249;  Hairy, 
249 

Wax,  covering  a  wound,  95;  formula 
for,  113  note;  used  in  tjridging, 
lis;  '*'^''  '^7 

Wax  Myrtle,  Myrica,  328,  i'12.  369- 

373 
Waxberry,     Symphorkarpus,     329, 

339-  366,  368-370,  372 

Weather,  affecting  disease,  53,  S7. 
64;  a  consideration  in  transplant- 
ing, 176 

Weevils,  48,  152,  284;  see  also 
Insect  pests 

Weigelia,  see  Diervilla 

Whale-oil  soap,  see  Soap  solution 


288, 


White  Alder,  Clethra,  327,  332,  366, 

370,  372 
White  Beam.  Sorbiis,  264 
White  Pine  pest  from  Germany,  37 
White  Pine  scale,  tsi 
White  Pine  weevil,  iS3 
Whitewash,  see  Lime  wash 
Whitewood,  f.iriodendron,  212, 

370 
Wild  Service  Tree,  Sorbus,  264 
Willow,  .S"(j/(.v,    16.   25,   s8.  ^5.  f'S. 

134-156.  158.  lOi.  163,  171,  213, 

36;,;     Kilmarnock,    315;     Laurel 

leaf.  3 '6.  ,?()5.  37:;  Weeping,  315; 

White,  315 
Willow-rosette,  48;  s,r  also  Galls 
Wind,  damage  from,  31 
Wireworms,  148,  155 
Witch's  broom,  38 
Wood-borers,  49,  1^2-154,  158,  275 
Wood  Honeysuckle,  Azalea,  330 
Wood- wasps,    49;    see    also    Insect 

pests 
Wounds,   dressing   of,   89;   healing, 

91-94;  treatment  for  fresh,  113 
Wrens,  130 

Xulisma,  Privet  Andromeda,  335 

Yarrow,  324 

Yellow-wood,  Cladrastis.  210,  253, 
365 

Yew.  Cepltalotaxiis,  209.  246,*  247; 
Podocarpus,  210,  247;  Taxus.  192, 
210,  245.*  370.  372;  Torreya.  210. 
247;  Knglish,  Taxus,  210,  245,* 
246;  Japanese,  Taxus,  210,  246 

Zenobia,  335,  372 


i! 


■^^ICT^ 


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Professor  ot  P.otanv  in  University  College.  London,  with  the  ass^s^t- 
ance  of  Marian  Bisii  and  Mary  E.  Ewart.     4t'>-     2  vols.     The 

set.    $11.00  net. 

A  work  for  reference  or  continuous  rea.ling.  at  once  popular  and, 
in  the  modern  sense,  thoroly  scientific.  The  new  edition  is  prac- 
ticillv  i.Unt.cal  with  the  former  four-volume  edition  except  that  the 
colored  plal.s  in  the  latter  have  been  omitted.  The  wo<xl  engravings, 
over  two  thousan.l  in  number,  have  teen  retained. 

..  Profess,.  K..r:>er  has  h-oURht  the  most  --nt  researches  with.n  reach  o 
the  intellit-ent  reader,  and  in  a  style  so  cl,arm,n^  >hat  even  <he   P^"f^;_^';"^' 
teacher    may    l.arn   a   lesson   in   the   art   of   presentation. 
CoULTEK,  in  The  Di.m.. 


-Prof.   John  M. 


Prospectuses  of  the  above  on  request. 


HENRY     HOT.T     AND     COMPANY 

New  Yome 

j4   West  33D  St. 


Ferns  of  the  Northeastern  States 

By  Campbell  E.  Waters.     302  PP-     ^1"*'"^  ^^°'  "'"'  ^"° 
illustrations,  mostly  from  photographs.      Boxed,   $3-«>-   »^'i 

bv  mail,  $3.34- 

ThorouKhly  authoritative,  yet  popularin  «;yl'^';.'J?;5J»  "i'^l^  ^-on! 

"  This  bnok  is  likely  to  prove  the  leading  popular  w^rk  ""  n/ Wat«s 

'brings  to  h.s  w°'\fi''^^Verpec  ed  to  prov/"f  oerm  scientiHc 

Sarwe'^asrsatrsty^'wa'nra^h.l  Ui^lin.  .ses  have  but  i,nper. 

Je'-'ly  filled."— /Vaw/  /'  <"-W- 

Mushrooms 

By  Gf.or(;k  F.  .Vtkinson.  With  230  iHustratUms  fr-.m  photo- 
graphs, inclu.ling  15  colored  plates.  32°  PP-  ^vo.  $3.00, 
tiel;  bv  mail.  S3-23- 

Mushr.-.n.s.  e,lible.  poisonous,  etc.  With  recipes  for  c.king 
by  Mrs  S.  T.  Rorer,  and  the  chemistry  and  toxicology  of  mush- 
rooms bv  J.  K.  Clark. 

..  It  would  be  d,fficu\,t  to  conceive  of  a  more  attractive  and  useful 
■ook.'"'— Educational  Revitw. 

Atkinson's  College  Botany 

by  George   F.    Atkinson,    Professor    in    Cornell    University 

xvi  +  737PP-     8^"-     ^^•°°- 

Tu  K„„i,  is  the  result  of  a  revision  and  elaboration  of  the  author's 
This  book  IS  the  ,',«*"'!,  °'„7j,  pi^n  of  the  parts  on  physiology  and 
"Elementary  Kotany.  „J.^«  Kf "lanced  Considerable  new  matter  hiis 
general  morphology  ^^™f'"^„""".^,f "^,^'',i  part  especially  on  the  subjects 
been  added.  »'"«S''"\'^  n'^  hL  luhkct  of  hrmorpho^  of  fertiliza- 
of  nutrition  and  digestion,  and  '''«  f^^*^;! ' ,  '"  5^^  revised  to  bring  this 
tion  in  the  By'nr'''"'"%^"f  the^oast'^Lw  yeaJs  Th'  Greatest  improve- 
abreast  of  the  d'''=°^"^*  °j,;^=  P^Vnir^tion  rewritin  and  elaboration 
men.  has  been  in  'he  <;°"»Plete  re°rganirat^^^^^^^  ^^        ^^^^.^^ 

l\  ;^^e^nneat'."o^hi\^rrsu§[ec7crn\nr' Vented  .n  I  more  logical  and 

coherent  form. 

.ir-vTr-.\/   \ir\\  T   5,  rr\     M  west  33d  street.  Hew  York 
HENRY  HOL  I    &  L.U.  37$  WabaiH  Avenue,  Chicago 

VIII,  '05 


Kellogg*s  Darwinism  Today 

By  Vernox  L.  Kellogg,  Professor  in  the  Lehuul  Stanford 
University.     395  pp.     8vo.     $2.00,  net.     Postage  15  cents. 

A  simple  and  concise  diMiis.sion  for  tiie  educated  layman 
of  present-day  scientific  criticism  of  the  Darwinian  selection 
theories,  togetlier  with  concise  accounts  of  the  o'ther  more  im- 
portant proposed  auxiliary  and  alternative  theories  of  species- 
forming. 

President  David  Starr  Jordan  in  The  Dial:— Its  value  can- 
not be  over-estimated.  A  book  the  student  must  have  at  hand 
at  all  times,  and  it  takes  the  place  of  a  whole  library.  No 
other  writer  has  attcmi)ted  to  gather  together  the  scattered 
literature  of  this  vast  sui)ject,  and  none  has  subjected  this 
literature  to  such  uniformlv  trenchant  and  uniformly  kindly 
criticism.  An  investigator  of  the  first  rank,  and  master  of 
a  clear  and  forceful  literarj-  style. 

New  York  ««n.— Can  write  in  English  as  brightly  and  as 
clearly  as  the  old-time  Frenchmen.  ...  In  his  text  he  explains 
the  controversy  so  that  the  plain  man  may  understanu  it,  while 
in  the  notes  he  adduces  the  evidence  that  the  specialist  re- 
quires. ...  A  brilliant  book  that  deserves  general  attention. 

Locy's  Biology  and  Its  Makers 

By  William  A.  Locy,  Professor  in  Northwestern  University. 
460  pp.    8vo.    $-2.15,  net.    By  mail,  $2.88. 

An  untechnical  account  of  the  rise  and  progress  of  biolog>'; 
written  around  the  lives  of  the  great  leaders,  with  bibliography 
and  index.  The  123  illustrations  include  portraits,  many  of 
them  rare,  of  nearlv  all  the  founders  of  biologj".  The  book  is 
divided  into  two  parts:  Part  I  dealing  with  the  sources_  of 
biological  ideas  except  those  of  Orgamc  Evolution,  and  Part 
II  devoting  itself  wholly  to  Evolution. 

The  Dial:— It  is  entertainingly  written,  and,  better  than  any 
other  existing  single  work  in  any  language,  gives  the  lavman  a 
clear  idea  of  the  scope  and  development  of  the  broad  science 
of  biologv-. 

The  .Ta/ion:— Whether  the  reader  be  layman,  or  a  college 
student,  or  a  biologist  whose  life  work  is  nearing  completion, 
this  summarv'  of  achievements  will  lie  an  inspiration.  Intro- 
duces U4  in  a  charming  way  to  the  human  side  of  the  scientists. 
A  well  chosen  rending  list,  an  excellent  index. 


HENRY  HOLT  AND  COMPANY 

PUBLISHERS  ^^"^  ^O^ 


E.  RAY  LANKESTERS  EXTINCT  ANIMALS 

By  Prof.  E.  Ray  Lankkster.  F.R.S..  Keeper  of  the  Natural 
History  Department  of  the  British  Museim.  Author  of  "  The 
Advancement  of  Science"  and  "A  Treatise  of  Zoology." 
With  numerous  illustrations.    $i.75  net ;  by  mail,  $1.93. 

An  interesting  book  by  a  high  authority,  based  en  a  course 
of  his  successful,  popular  lectures.  His  narrative  is  well 
unified  and  developed,  and  his  style  so  simple  that  children 
as  well  as  older  folk  may  enjoy  the  work.  The  illustrations 
are  unusually  effective. 

N  J'.  5««— A  charming  borv  .  .  .  showitiR  that  the  greatest  leaminu 
can  be  combined  with  -he  utmost  simplicity  of  expression  .  .  ,  a  book 
of  intense  interest  ...  the  pictures  are  skilfully  arranged  to  elucldat. 
the  text. 

A'  Y  Globe  -A  great  deal  more  lively  than  it  sounds.  .  .  .  Hu«le» 
himself  could  not  have  talked  more  instructively  in  such  simpM 
language. 

N.  Y.  rridune  .—Opens  up  a  vvorld  of  new  interest,  popular  rath* 
than  technical. 

E.  RAY  LANKESTER'S  THE  KINGDOM  OF  MAN 

••  Nature's  Insurgent  Son  ";  "  The  Advance  of  Science- 
1881-1906";  "Nature's  Revenges-The  Sleeping  Sickness." 
$1.40  net;  by  mail,  $1  52. 

A  readable  and  pictorial  survey,  brief  but  nevertheless 
accurate  of  the  recent  progress  in  the  many  branches  of 
science-all  leading  towards  the  realization  of  man's  king 
dom— the  conquest  and  control  of  nature 

H  I.  Brock  in  a  three-column  notice  in  the  New  Yor-  Times  Saturd^ 
Review.-hn  impressive  statement  of  human  progress  in  kno^J'fee 
an^^wer  by  a  conservative  scientist  who  bel.eves  man  soo..  able  to 
elimrnate  disease  .  .  .  exceedingly  interesting  ...  it  gathers  into  a 
ve^y  small  compas;  and  presents  si.r.  ply  to  the  layman  an  immensely 
impressive  set  of  facts  and  ideas. 


.      If  the  reader  will  send  his  name  and  address,  the  publishers  wiB 
s'end.fror^  time  to  time,  information  regarding  their  new  books. 


HENRY     HOLT     AND 

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